Holography seems to be doing rather well these days in the United States. Before elaborating, I divide holographic activity into various categories. There is, of course, holographic research, as carried out in universities, government laboratories, and in industry. Second, there is holography as a tool. Third, there is commercial holography. I offer my evaluation of all of these.

The progress of holographic technology and developments in commercial and art holography in the UK since 1991 are reviewed, and the present status of holography in the UK is briefly discussed.

Holography has made great progress in Japan. There are many `firsts' in holography. Two large research organizations on holography and a working group on moving holography were established. The Conference on Three Dimensional Image separated from The Joint Conference on Imaging Technology. Many exhibitions were opened. An international symposium and a domestic one on holography were held in November.

Before 1984, to a westerner Hong Kong was hardly a recognizable dot on a world atlas. It is a Chinese city and a British colony. At midnight on 30 June 1997, Britain will end its century and a half of colonial rule in Hong Kong, leaving China to resume sovereignty over its six million people. Since 1990, in the stress of this crisis Hong Kong prospers at a time of global recession. This also creates many opportunities in higher education among the youngsters. The success of the city attracts, at least 12% of persons who emigrated in the 10 years before 1992 have returned to Hong Kong. This dramatic change brings in unexpected new information and high technologies to the city. Holography is one of these new technologies. It was rarely understood by the general population before the 1980s. But with the scattered efforts of some research workers from the academic and commercial groups along with the prosperity of the city, the subject of holography has become increasingly popular. This report gives a quick survey on the major activities of holography in Hong Kong.

Besides the surprising fact that already three years are gone again, it is a good idea to stop for a moment and look back: What has been accomplished in this time span? What is important to mention? There are many good and promising developments. Some of them are presented in other talks at the Lake Forest meeting. But besides those promising experiences there are some questions about the holographic market in Germany. Comments are made on education, fine- art, research and development and commercial holography.

The present state of holography in the country, especially in the field of commercial holography, is very changeable, as in all commercial activities after the political and economic changes in Czechoslovakia at the end of 1989 and after splitting the country in 1993. A lot of new relations among all entities, especially enterprises, have started and this process is not finished. It is necessary to say several words about the state of holography before 1990. After the political and economic changes in the country the government research support was considerably reduced, and a new grant system, based on competitive selection, was introduced instead. Certainly, this process is at the beginning and it is very dynamic. Holography exhibitions with commercial or artistic aspects also were turning up.

Although these years were marked by a deep recession, although the Canada council closed its holography section, a fact that had a heavy impact on all types of activities, the vitality and creativity which dominated the Canadian scene is impressive. Holography is mostly developed in Ontario and Quebec. A small but strong and bold bastion exists in British Columbia. Answers to my call sent all over Canada for information were more spontaneous from the Province of Quebec. This fact might explain the accuracy about the profile of the activities there.

A short report on the status of holography in Brazil from the perspectives of embossed holography, education and art.

It could be said that holography in Brazil took its roots from Argentina. since the first hologram made in Latin America is to mv knowledge. the one made by myself in July 1969 in La Plata University at the Laboratory for Spectroscopv. Optics and Laser directed by Dr. Mario Garavaglia. Although the single box of Kodak 649-F plates we imported was opened at the customs. the part that was in shadow during the inspection remained useful. That hologram was shown at the Latin American School for Physics that happened at La Plata City in 1970 and generated a general interest on the subject. Some of the participants that saw it later developed holography in Venezuela and Argentina.

Belgium is probably the most productive holographic nation, insofar as the production of silver-halide material is concerned, and silver-halide is still the workhorse for a very large number of holographic applications, both in display and technical fields. As Ilford ceased production of film material and Kodak produces only on special order, our output per capita is probably a couple of orders of magnitude higher than in any other country in the world. But this does not mean the problems are solved inconsistency between batches and inadequate quality control procedures. Profits remain negligible, as are R & D budgets. There is a little fundamental research on high-sensitive material optimized for transmission Krypton work, due to industrial demand; no product available yet. Only a limited number of other industrial firms are involved in the holographic business. A number of educational groups are doing fine.

The recording of high-quality color holograms is the only way in which holography can be made truly useful and totally acceptable in the world of business and everyday life. This possibility has been now opened by the introduction of panchromatic, single-layer ultra-high- resolution silver-halide emulsions which make it possible to obtain high-quality, large-format color reflection holograms. The use of three laser wavelengths on a single-layer emulsion in the recording process (Lippmann holography) makes the holographic recording technique similar to the early Lippmann photography of the last century. That combination promotes not only good color rendition but, additionally, due to wavelength multiplexing, the image resolution is improved as compared to monochrome holographic recordings. This fact is important in holographic microscopy and endoscopy, where high-resolution color images are particularly important.

The surface conditions of holographic materials were studied with atomic force microscopy (AFM). Holograms were made using Agfa 8E75 plates with two different types of developer and bleaching methods for the purpose of obtaining holograms of high diffraction efficiency. Developers and bleaches were based on Pyrogallol and Kodak D-19, and on potassium dichromate and potassium iodide, respectively. The observation area ranged from hundreds of nm to tens of microns and z (depth) from a few nm to hundreds of nm in ordinary circumstances. The AFM images of the relief pattern of holograms and the size and shapes of silver halide grains after bleaching were obtained in ambient air without coating.

Emulsion preparation in users' hands enables modification of the characteristics of recording materials for holography. Ultra-fine-grained silver halide emulsions were prepared in laboratory with two-step three-solution rapid mixing device. Characterization of the laboratory-made emulsion plates was made.

In this work, we present a study on the effect of four external electron donors in the formulation of dichromated polyvinyl alcohol (DC-PVA) films on the photosensitivity and real-time diffraction efficiency of volume holographic transmission gratings. The studied amines were found to have a detrimental effect on both holographic characteristics, even in small concentration. We found that higher relative humidity significantly improves the photospeed and the diffracted efficiency in DC-PVA films with and without an electron donor in almost all cases. The effect of the environmental humidity on the real-time diffraction efficiency in DC-PVA films with and without electron donors has been studied. Measurements of holographic characteristics are discussed. The photochemical recording mechanism in DC- PVA in the presence of external electron donors is briefly discussed as well. The amines may form a strong chelate ring structure with the chromium ions and, possibly, interfere with the crosslinking action of the photoreduced chromium. Crosslinking of the PVA matrix may occur either by PVA radicals or complexation of PVA with chromium. In both cases, hologram formation includes an electron transfer reaction, and the amines, good electron donors hinder the process by making chelate with the chromium.

Dichromated gelatin with methylene blue is red sensitive. Tetramethylguanidine intensifies this red sensitivity. Such an emulsion was used to produce holographic plates to inscribe a transmission grating with a Kr⁺-laser and to investigate some procedure and development parameters on the structure and diffraction efficiency. Ratio and concentration of prehardener, fixer, sensitizing solution, and pH-dependence were investigated. For the development, a six-step development process gave the best results. Influence of room humidity and storage time are important. The optimized process needs 3 hours from the first step to the finished hologram grating. More than 70% diffraction efficiency is possible. The coating method allows for the making of layers of different thickness and therefore volume effects can be observed.

The dynamic recording range or the maximum index modulation obtainable in any holographic material limits the properties of the hologram. The product of the modulation times the thickness determines diffraction efficiency in any phase hologram. In a reflection hologram low uniform modulation yields narrow spectral and angular bandwidths and high modulation in a chirped structure yields high angular and spectral bandwidths. An ideal master hologram requires a just right efficiency and very low noise to produce the best possible copies. In a two beam copy scheme the efficiency is less important than the low noise because beams can usually be balanced to the just right range with a variable beam splitter. In a single beam copy scheme the balance and the low noise plus wide enough angular and spectral responses all have to be built into the master. DCG has all the right properties for a top quality master that will get the most from any copy film of marginal index modulation, single beam reflection copies in Dupont photopolymers are as bright as the material will allow in any copy configuration.

Specific works from the last three years provide a basis for the discussion of some arguments in art and culture, such as the development of a female aesthetic and the `naturalization' of holography, as well as some practical aspects of making holograms with krypton, pulse, and stereogram technology.

Modern image making technology has made commonplace the production of astonishing imagery. Holography is rapidly expanding its presence in modern culture and we as its practitioners should strive to understand our place in the greater world of image making.

Out of the vast dearth of aesthetic theory aimed specifically at holography, the most ubiquitous is also the most reductive and discouraging in its anachronistic quest for old-fashioned seriousness in art holography.

At least three forces vie for dominance in any art project in a public space. The artist is called in through either a competition or private commission and is asked to solve a problem with the site; enhance it in some specific, or non-specific way; or a combination of the two. The client might be either a municipality required to engage an artist through a Percent for Arts program, or a public agency also under a mandated art program or a private, commercial developer, architect or individual. Then there is the public. Who is the public for the particular project? What are their needs, are they involved or not in the process? The public's response to a project is often the loudest and most varied.

Some people try hard to educate others about the beauty and technical benefits of holographic applications but another generation is already waiting to learn more about the media which talk to them about the future. Today the most common question is 'How can I do holograms with a computer?' 'Can I do it with an Amiga?' For the MIT specialists these are now very simple questions. We can expect to see the present shape of the holographic laboratory pass into history. I personally like to work with a VHS camera and mix it with CAD/CAM images, but computer and video are not the only media which will change the face of holography. The He.Ne. will be exchanged by diode laser. In a wavelength of 690 nm, some of them bring 40 mW in single mode and single line, not bigger than your little finger. Having such energy in so little a container, and the state of the art drifts rapidly into more flexibility. Using new media and introducing it in our societies give us a new responsibility. Would too much media kill the art? I do not think so, because I like the variety of media which give new possibility of expression. The game with new media is the power of creativity and it will find its meaning by itself.

Every medium has a code, a set of rules or conventions according to which determined elements are organized into a signifying system. The English language is a code as is perspective in painting and photography. In the first case, the elements are phonemes organized into words and sentences according to a social convention: the syntax of English. In the second case, the elements are dots and lines organized into pictures according to a geometric method. An artist or movement can break the conventions of the medium, as has done Cezanne with painting, Moholy-Nagy with photography and cummings with the English idiom in poetry, and create new elements and rules for combining them. If this is done, the level of predictability (or conventionality) is lowered and unpredictability is increased -- becoming more difficult for the immediate audience to understand it. But once these new rules are learned and the ideas behind them widely understood, the level of unpredictability is lowered and they become new conventions that can be accepted by the audience. Holographic artists exploring the medium -- as opposed to advertisers using holography, who favor a high level of predictability -- are breaking several visual and cultural conventions. As a matter of fact, holography is so new that many questions are left open about the nature of the medium. Therefore, any attempt to clarify the issues raised by holography on a cultural level has a prospective (and not conclusive) tone, concentrating more thoroughly on general points and on the promise of its potentialities than on the records of its historical achievements so far.

The author interviews artist, writer, and holographer Eduardo Kac on issues that relate to holopoetry, the relationship of literature to the visual arts, visual perception, digital imaging, holography, and the complex nature of language.

GRAM is a mediatic arts research group composed of five professors from three universities and ten MA, PHD and post doctoral students. Dr. Louise Poissant, an art philosopher specializing in the media arts is the founder and head of the group. While she makes all administrative and financial decisions, I am responsible for the holographic section. In this research I have been assisted by Philippe Boissonnet and am presently assisted by Marie- Christiane Mathieu, both holographers. Our group is based at the Universite du Quebec a Montreal.

Examination of Eadweard Muybridge's photographic sequences of human and animal locomotion reveal them to have latent stereoscopic and temporal parallax. In effect, Muybridge shot the first photographic images suitable for making into multiplex holograms. Analysis of Muybridge's photographic setup shows the inherent stereoscopic parallax, and an examination of a succession of frames used to produce a multiplex hologram illustrates different ways in which temporal and stereoscopic parallax can be perceptually combined.

In recent theory of architecture and building construction there are two architectural topics which show how holographic elements and their technical properties can make a valuable contribution to the solution of two obvious problems in architecture. One is the high energy consumption in offices and administration buildings, the other the information inflation that takes place in many transitory spaces. In addition to this there is a topic which refers to aesthetic needs -- i.e., the light design of interior spaces with the help of holography in the scope of media architecture.

This paper introduces a variety of new techniques for holographic displays, offering an active time element for viewer dynamics. In interactive systems, viewers trigger dramatic changes in holographic images. Light and projection events alter the holograms in response to viewers' movements. Reconstruction light angle changes, digital video and computer-generated animation all play roles in these systems. LCD video projection opens the door to the use of holograms as screens suitable for color-coding depth. Electronic media are also tools for generating integral holograms. A video-to-computer-to-hologram system completed a series of holograms of the classic elements.

In 1985 Anne-Marie Christakis selected me to make the first pulse holographic feature-fiction movie. Up to that time, the process had only been used for laboratory tests. The running time for the movie was to be 1 minute 20 seconds. Apparently quite long compared with previous tests, but an extremely short time in which to tell a story. I chose the characters of Beauty and the Beast. A lot of time was spent in preparatory work: triple distilling the scenario to get it down to 80 seconds; paintings and masks, and I extracted the music from a suite I had already written in medieval style. The movie was made in 1986 in the laboratory of Professeur Smigielsky, which was located in the Franco-German Defense Research Establishment, at St. Louis in France. Prof. Smigielsky's staff operated all the equipment and Anne-Marie Christakis coordinated everything, as she had done throughout the project. As soon as we arrived at the laboratory, we were told not to look beyond a certain angle towards the laser, otherwise we could be blinded for life. With all that dangerous power however, it was only possible to illuminate a volume for the set of half a meter wide by half a meter deep by one third of a meter high. Such a set gives real meaning to the expression `cramp one's style.' The layout used was, in principle, the same as for making a simple hologram. A pulsed YAG laser was used and each pulse was synchronized with a new frame to be exposed in the camera. When the movie was finished, it was not very bright, and one had to look through a small aperture to view it.

When I first started making holograms in 1974 I was searching for direction in my art. After a few encounters with holograms I realized many diverse disciplines could come together to form a kind of unifying clarity of many interests. It turns out, this can of worms encompasses a universe, within a universe, within a universe.

Throughout art history the reclining nude won much of its attention from shocking its viewers. Historically, such masters as Velazquez, Titian, Goya, Manet, Moore, and Matisse depicted the reclining nudes in their art. Today, it is commonplace to see a nude or partial nude figure on magazines, movies, billboards or numerous other places. Yet, as a hologram the reclining nude seems to evoke response similar to that of its historical past.

Holography as a science owes its success to the recording of interference patterns in a variety of recording materials. Many of these materials are also used in the companion science of precision lithography. This paper discusses two important areas of holography and lithography. Both make use of the novel imaging polymers of DuPont. We discuss here the manufacture of micro-diffusers for diverse optical applications and the creation of phase holograms by contact lithographic methods using silver image amplitude holograms. Such copying methods are essentially incoherent using broad band UV light and bridge the gap between holography and lithography.

A preliminary introduction to holography geared towards artists and the general public is discussed. The method is based on a participatory approach that relates holography to psychology/perception, science/physics, and art/imaging. The overall intention is designed to break down unconscious assumptions.

The use of diffraction effects as decoration has been investigated for a long time before lasers and holography were ever dreamed of. A brief history of applications of diffraction from the 1700s to the present is given along with a review of various patents and products using diffraction gratings before the age of holography.

There is no doubt that the laser has in many ways far surpassed even the wildest ideas of what it could do. Our most important unit, the meter, is practically defined as a certain number of lightwaves, and now with the use of the laser interferometer we measure with the light waves directly in the workshop. The laser has also made possible a new definition of the meter -- the distance that light travels in a certain fraction of a second. Thus, time and space have become connected in a way I am sure Einstein should have appreciated. With the laser we can produce ultrashort pulses made up of only a few waves. And with these pulses we can make measurements down to micrometers. Soon, even this new definition of the meter can be used directly in the workshops.

In this paper I discuss how it is possible to introduce students and the general public to holography. The paper contains examples of the types of courses which have been running in the United Kingdom, the results that they are achieving, how to develop them, and why I believe that courses such as these should be available.

The concept of collaborations between artists and scientists, working with holography, is explored. A background and history to such collaborations is given and two case studies are detailed: one from a pioneering artist in the field who organized very early collaborations with scientists and engineers, the second from a more recent collaboration between the authors of this paper. A description of the authors' collaboration is given and details of a single exposure color mixing technique for rainbow `shadow' holograms is specified. The description of the making of a collaborative hologram, using this system, is provided.

Many artists and educators involved in holography have not had the budget to purchase commercial tables or benches, but instead have improvised in a number of interesting ways. The sandbox table, credited to Gerald Pethick, is one example of an ingenious solution in the quest for affordable vibration control for holography. In my research, I have found others. In this paper I discuss various non-commercial `tables' with two purposes in mind: the first is to have it act as a resource to those interested in constructing their own holography system or table; the second, is as historical documentation of how holographers have worked to create their images.

Because of their high impact and sharpness, we believe that holograms make better teaching tools than conventional images, and one day will be common in medical texts and journals. To be maximally effective as teaching tools, in some instances there must be labels or arrows within the images. Although our main interest is to use holography as a teaching device, other investigators are already using it for diagnosis and treatment.

For many years, the Technische Fachhochschule Berlin (TFH) has offered experimental courses on holography for students of various areas of engineering. The course `Holography I and II' is performed in the laser laboratory of the TFH, each of 6 days for 4 hours. Since the students plan and install the experiments themselves the maximum number of participants is 12. The curriculum consists of the following subjects: Introduction to holography, Properties of laser radiation, Single beam holography, Holographical optical elements, Holographic interferometry, Split beam holography.

The coupled wave theory predicts oscillations of the diffraction efficiency for thick holographic transmission phase gratings with increasing Bragg angle. In order to examine this relationship the theory published by Kogelnik was recalculated using more accurate boundary conditions and applying an eigenvalue procedure. The results are in agreement with the equations already published. Experiments were performed to measure the diffraction efficiency as a function of the Bragg angle (theta) and refractive index variation. The few experiments indicate no oscillations for high values of (theta) . Diffraction efficiency shows the same dependency on refractive index variation for low and high values of Bragg angle. The findings are not in full agreement with theory. Absorption cannot account for all deviations. The experimental results help to find ideal conditions producing transmission holograms.

This paper is concerned with the development of the concept of natural education. Psychology has discovered that all humans learn intuitively the cultural concepts of time from birth to eight and one-half to ten years of age. Einstein showed us that this must also be the natural time for the development of spatial concepts. The importance of this has been dramatized for me in the past eight years that I have been developing the Laser Arts and Holography Programs and Workshops. I have worked with over 100,000 students kindergarten through eighth grade. I have worked with 175 students age 8 to 10 in three hour and one half workshops specifically on the development of time and space concepts. The concepts developed are based upon the vast amount of psychological evidence related to the natural development of time and space understandings, Dr. Nils Abramson's 'Light in Flight' and subsequent work on the clarification of relativity through holography, and Maria Montessori's method of Scientific Education. The paper also demonstrates the natural method of teaching science to younger students is to teach scientifically. All of the research which has been done in the past 100 years has been used by the educational institutions to try to improve the system. What has not been done is changing the system to how humans learn. Because of the perceived hi-tech nature of the program I am able to dramatize the potential. An outline for a holography curriculum kindergarten through eighth grade is included.

In recent years single-beam holography has become more accessible to students in public elementary, middle, and high schools. Here we assess the implications of holography for student safety and environmental issues regarding related chemistry.

This paper describes a method to produce complex 2D diffraction patterns using a computer based exposure system. Images are composed of thousands of individual diffraction gratings which are exposed onto photo resist for production with traditional embossing techniques. A unique optical technique is described that allows the machinery to run a speed sufficient to cover large areas at high resolutions with reasonable run times. Ideas for other applications at larger scales are discussed as well.

In March of 1990 I filmed the first in the Native American Holo-Portrait series which I showed video of at the last Lake Forest Symposium. Since then I have done several additional film shoots with almost 40 different holo-portraits currently in the can. With around 500 Native American nations within the northern hemisphere the prospect of filming one hologram per nation looks like a multi-decade project. All 35 mm cine has been shot to date in color on extremely fine grain T formula emulsion stocks. Some of the footage has been shot using the rotating subject configuration and others with the laterally translating camera configuration. In the future I may film all subjects in both formats if time allows. Other images have been shot at reservations and pow-wows. All location work is accomplished with lighting and generators on hand because of questionable power availability at some of the sites. I have received a favorable response for potential support from the Smithsonian's Native American Museum now under construction on the mall next to the Air & Space Museum in Washington, D.C. This will be a fine display space for these portraits. However, I am planning to produce editions in several formats in order to allow for global distribution of these images.

The use of optical radiation for imaging through biological tissue has developed into a major activity. There is now a whole range of methods employed by the many groups attempting to use light to accomplish this formidable objective. We have pursued electronic holography which has some significant advantages but also presents several special challenging problems. We describe various ideas we have developed to overcome them. Finally, we speculate on the ultimate capabilities of these ambitious imaging methods.

A novel holographic particle image velocimeter system has been developed for the study of three-dimensional fluid velocity fields. The recording system produces three-dimensional particle images of micron-sized particles with a resolution, signal-to-noise ratio, accuracy and derived velocity fields that are comparable to high-quality two-dimensional photographic PIV (particle image velocimetry). The high image resolution is accomplished by using low f- number optics, a fringe stabilized processing chemistry, and a phase conjugate play-back geometry that compensates for aberrations in the imaging system. In addition, the system employs a reference multiplexed, off-axis geometry for determining velocity directions using the cross-correlation technique, and a stereo camera geometry for determining the three velocity components. The combination of the imaging and reconstruction sub-systems make the analysis of volumetric PIV domains feasible. Recent results using the newly developed HPIV system are presented and potential uses of the system in other holographic imaging applications are discussed as well.

Deterioration of natural stone, man-made building materials such as mortar, bricks and concrete, and other materials such as wood, paint, glass, metal, etc. has been of increasing concern in recent decades. More specifically, problems of lifetime and durability of reinforced concrete structures on the one hand and museum objects diagnostic on the other became more important due to different factors. Since the late seventies, all this had led to intensified research about the causes and the nature of degradation processes and to the development of general strategies for handling such situations. Environmental factors are often cited as major parameters, but the concept, design, and manufacture of the elements are also very important. Both from the civil engineering point of view, and from the restoration aspects, early detection of damage can save a lot of trouble, labor, and thus money. Holographic interferometry is in principle a method very well suited for this purpose, as it combines whole-field measurement and high sensitivity with non-contact and non-preparation of the materials studied. This paper describes some results obtained on real-size, real-life objects. Up to now, tests were conducted in the lab using continuous and pulsed lasers combined with silver-halide and electronic recording schemes. It is hoped that in a later phase, in-situ experiments will be effectuated; some preliminary concepts of that are discussed.

A small, simple device is designed which makes transmission holograms of arbitrarily large objects coated with a retro-reflective paint. It allows direct readout of (delta) Z values from observed interferometric fringes under double-exposure, time-averaged, or real-time conditions. Three such orthogonal devices can be used for simultaneous detection of (delta) x, (delta) y, and (delta) z displacements.

To understand wind tunnel flow-field turbulence, it is necessary to understand how high speed (kHz) transient events develop in time. The framing rates necessary to record such imagery are too high for conventional video camera systems to be used. While high-speed, film-based cameras (e.g. Cordin drum film recorders) have sufficient spatial resolution and framing rates, analyzing the data acquired with these cameras is time consuming, possibly taking days to process and digitize the film images. These limitations in existing digital imaging technologies, and pulsed flow-field illumination systems have prevented digital movies of phenomena in turbulent and unstable flow-field regions to be made with sufficient spatial and temporal resolution. To address this need, I am presenting two techniques which can record data onto an intermediate optical buffer with the desired temporal and spatial resolution. These optical buffers incorporate real-time erasable recording film which consist of a phosphor or bacteriorhodopsin (BR) that would be used to temporarily store the images which were recorded at kHz rates. These images are then reconstructed and digitized at standard video rates, and stored on an optical disk. The primary advantage of this technique is in the ability to record images at extremely fast rates (60 kHz or faster) and then digitize the images at standard video recording rates.

The paper addresses the use of hybrid cinematography, computer graphics, and electronic imaging to create a full color, animated, holographic stereogram for embossed replication. Several methods of stereoscopic techniques for pre-visualization of holographic stereogram subjects are discussed as well.

In order to obtain a distortion-free image when a transfer hologram is replayed by a diverging beam, the original reference beam must be the precise conjugate of the replay beam, i.e., it must converge towards the future location of the replay source. Off-the-shelf collimating mirrors have too long a focal length to achieve this, and suitable custom-built mirrors are heavy and prohibitively expensive. Several methods are suggested for obtaining a suitable beam, including a new type of varifocal pellicular mirror made by stretching a metallized plastic membrane over a circular drumhead and creating a partial vacuum behind it, producing a concave mirror of high optical quality with adjustable focal length.

The article is an analysis of the perception of computer-generated holographic displays, their structure, and how informational aesthetic surplus holography contributes to the combination of computer and holography.

Development of a low cost portable holographic table that can be easily set up in multiple configurations is described. The table can be used to demonstrate in a classroom environment how a transmission and reflection hologram is made.

Last year at the 1993 conference on Holographic Imaging and Materials, the author presented a real-time holographic stereogram resembling a Lloyd Cross cylindrical holographic stereogram. It employs a cylindrical HOE that spins at 30 rotations per second and displays 25 real-time raster scanned 2D images of electronic data. It allows the viewer significant freedom of movement in any direction, while viewing the 3D images, and the ability to look around objects by intuitively moving one's head. However, an ideal 3D display would not have any moving parts, and would be flat panel. In this paper a flat panel real-time holographic stereogram with no moving parts is presented. This simple 3D display is ideal for both consumer and industrial use.

The ICVision system is a diffractive display based on VLSI and liquid crystal technology designed to compute and display holographic stereograms in real-time. The diffractive display is formed on the surface of standard integrated circuit chips which have been covered with a liquid crystal overlay. Fringing electrostatic fields generated by indium tin oxide electrodes on top of the integrated circuit are used to induce the actual diffractive display. A large display may be assembled from several hundred individual dies. Within each individual die making up the ICVision display will be the processor that computes the image to be displayed. This paper describes the design of image storage and drive electronics for the ICVision display. The proposed electronics allow the fabrication of an individual static ram cell and d/a converter for each of the tens of thousands of diffractive elements that make up a ICVision display.

We propose a new fabrication method of multiplex holograms and present an example made by this method. We studied the possibility to display the perspectives on a liquid crystal panel for a computer display and the convenient way to convert the perspectives to film. The way of conversion is more useful than using liquid crystal panel at the present. We also propose an idea of an attractive object to demonstrate by multiplex hologram. The object is designed with a typical CG technique morphing. Faces of animals are metamorphosed and exposed in a hologram as a sequential image. And then it is divided into two loops and each hologram turns at a different speed. We can look at many different synthesized images from combinations of plural multiplex holograms.

A method for producing bright full-color reflection one-step holographic stereograms using a single recording wavelength is described. The technique produces a trichromatic reseau pattern in which each column of image-plane `holographic pixels' is separated into red, green, and blue sub-columns, each of which conveys the necessary color separation information. The primary colors are produced by spatially selective pre- or post-exposure swelling of the sub- columns by the amounts needed to produce diffraction in the appropriate wavelengths. Preliminary results, produced using DuPont photopolymer Holographic Recording Film in conjunction with DuPont Color Tuning Film subjected to precisely masked ultra-violet pre- exposures, are presented. The parameters of this dry process single-laser full-color technique are discussed in the context of an automated holographic printer system.

Although many experiments and documents on 360 degree(s) viewable holograms have been successfully produced and documented prior to this paper, those most noteworthy and applicable to our work include U.S.S.R. patent SU1103194 issued in 1984 and patent 4,988,154 issued to Matthew Hansen in 1991. This paper discusses the development and implementation of 360 degree(s) viewable holograms on flat disk film based on the original concept proposed by Craig Newswanger of CFC Applied Holographics. Conventionally, 360 degree(s) holograms were viewable in cylindrical format. Our project involves a simple optical set-up and method, and it uses flat film, without altering its shape cylindrically.

A compact display system using reflection type rainbow hologram is proposed. This hologram is reconstructed by using a large illumination angle in air, not edge illumination. A good reconstructed image is obtained by adoption of a louver film.

The paper describes making a large white light transmission shadowgram (112 X 224 cm) at Photonics Industries in Lyon, France; the hologram is an element of an art piece called Mujer.

Image plane holography customarily has a limited-parallax viewing field, usually caused by the frame of the master hologram. This limits the viewing audience to one or two people at a time, with no visible image for off-axis viewers. A partial solution is to use a larger master, which creates a larger viewing window to extend the size of the viewing field. This new method extends the captured field beyond the edges of the recording plate, using flat mirrors on either side of the master hologram to reflect otherwise unrecorded side views. These side views are reversed and superimposed over the object wave during recording of the master hologram. After the hologram is processed and illuminated, these mirrored side views are part of the reconstructed wavefront. When reverse-illuminated in the copy set-up for reconstructing and copying the real image, the same side mirrors, now placed into the copy system along with the master, reflect the projected side views back to the original object position. A copy hologram recorded at the image plane receives all the reassembled reflected views as well as the direct object wavefront. The field of view is no longer limited by the size of the master window, but by other factors such as coherence length, mirror alignment, or distortion of the recording media. Several experimental mirror arrangements are presented, including reflection hologram copies with parallax enhancement on all four sides of the master plate, rainbow transmission copies with multiple colors and multiple channels, and different mirror positions and sizes.

Computer controlled tactile gloves (CCTG) can recreate the sensation of touching objects that are not really there. This technology is already used in Virtual Reality (VR) with many successful applications. Holography is another science that is still finding many new applications. The combination of holograms and CCTG allows new possibilities to become feasible. Some possible uses of the haptic hologram are: The calibration of tactile gloves, psychological experiments (vision and dexterity, etc.), educational displays (museums), new artistic media, etc. This report looks at the possible use of CCTG with holograms.

Holographic screens were previously reported by one of the authors (J. J. L.) as a means of keeping parallax when projecting images of objects and holophotographs. The images formed in that way offer stereoscopic vision to the audience, without the help of glasses, but in addition to that they offer color encoded continuous parallax effects when the onlooker changes position along a horizontal track. First, we report on the manufacture and use of diffractive screens of dimensions up to 1.14 m X 0.75 m that show all of the previous reported abilities. They were made by means of a ruby laser. In the next section a number of possible uses of those screens are presented, going from diffraction encoded projection of photographs, over real object projection, to transmission and reflection holograms. Magnifications by a factor of 20 were possible.

The slit image of a rainbow hologram is analyzed for the case of a narrow laser beam normal to the hologram. The slit image on the screen is found to be of the shape of hyperbola or circle curve. The analytical expressions for the hyperbola or circle curve shown on the screen by a narrow laser beam is derived in this paper. The results agree with the experiments. Some important parameters of a rainbow hologram -- such as the angle between reference and object wave, the width and the length of the slit, and the viewing angle of the hologram -- can be determined by this reconstruction method. It is helpful for holographers to get a better understanding if they are interested in some holograms made by others and they can learn more from them.

In 1991 Reconnaissance Holographics Ltd. conducted a survey of the worldwide holography industry. This paper presents a summary of the findings of that survey, updated and projected forward with new data gathered since the survey. Trends in commercial display holography are identified and projected to 1999. The paper includes estimates of the global market for display and embossed holograms; how that market is split between the various market sectors; and the global distribution of hologram production. Historical trends in market growth and shifts in the balance of applications are presented. We identify potential growth areas for display holography, growth sectors, and new trends in market applications of holographics.

This three-part paper describes the work of the International Hologram Manufacturers Association, and its Hologram Image Register. We also examine the international copyright conventions as they apply to holography and the dangers of counterfeit or `pass-off' holograms. In November 1992 the International Hologram Manufacturers Association was established and the Association now has some 40 members which between them represent a large part of the first-world's production of commercial holograms. In April this year the IHMA started the Hologram Image Register. This resource is designed to prevent the inadvertent copying of intrinsically valuable holograms. The paper explains the methods by which counterfeiters have attempted to have false holograms produced and examines the dangers of counterfeit hologram production to individual holographers and to the flourishing business of holography.

At Lake Forest College's Fourth International Symposium on Display Holography (July 1991), the author first formulated an idea to promote fine art holography by recording and publishing sale prices for art holograms. The idea was mentioned to several prominent artists in attendance, and the response was enthusiastic. The author formed a new company to publish the world's first journal of international art hologram sales, the Holart Report. Holart Report published four quarterly issues, beginning in May 1992. During that time, the publisher created a significant database of hologram art sales and reported tens of thousands of dollars in holographic art transactions. In February 1993 the author's new job obligations and a general lack of support for the project forced him to suspend publication of Holart Report. This paper attempts to answer serious questions surrounding the experience. What problems were encountered? What benefits, if any, did Holart provide during its short lifetime? Why were many in the holographic art community reluctant to support the project? In retrospect, what should have been done differently to ensure greater success? Lastly, the author states his belief that the idea remains feasible and valuable. The database is intact and the publishing template established. The lessons learned can be used to produce a much improved new version of Holart Report or a similar publication.

The Chinese holography industry has been given an enormous boost by the energetic sales and technology transfer of several western businesses. It is a fast growing industry which can keep up with domestic demand for anti-counterfeit embossed holograms because product counterfeiting is so rife internally. Tax papers, stamps, plastic cards, identification cards, and many packaged goods are authenticated with embossed holograms. Up to now, about 1,000 kinds of products in China have used holograms to protect themselves. Anti-counterfeit holograms with secret codes have also been used. After dependence on imports, China is rapidly developing its own sources of equipment, holographic materials, and embossing substrates. The quality of this equipment and materials is improving. The new Chinese Holography Association, a national industry association aiming to develop the application of holograms and to promote cooperation between organizations, was established in 1993. The CHA has requested affiliation to the International Hologram Manufacturers Association, a move which should improve the communication between the Chinese industry and the rest of the world industry.

`Where can I buy holograms?' `Where can I exhibit, there is no more gallery to show me?' These are the two complaints I have heard these past two years, first from the collectors and museum curators, second from the artists, Trained as a psycho-sociologist, I have been the curator and research associate of the Museum of Holography in Washington, D.C. for 7 years, at a time when holography was coming out of the laboratory, creating a real 3-D novelty in people's minds. I saw the mass production growing and the applications multiplying. Meanwhile the artists appeared and started to deal with gallery managers. After the renting period of artworks for exhibits, price went up. The general recession affected the art and the dialogue between collectors and artists became harder. Having my husband as an artist, I know pretty well both sides. My paper tries to analyze the situation to facilitate the communication between artists and collectors.

Electronic holographic imaging, developed at the MIT Media Laboratory Spatial Imaging Group over the past five years, is a truly three-dimensional real-time digital imaging medium. Recent work in holographic video has demonstrated that the crucial technologies -- computation, electronic signal manipulation, and optical modulation and scanning -- may be scaled up to produce larger, more interactive, full-color holographic images. Synthetic images and images derived from real-world scenes are quickly converted into holographic fringe patterns using newly-developed `diffraction-specific' computational algorithms. A parallel- architecture signal processing system distributes the holographic video among multiple output boards. To diffract light so as to form an image in real time, the display employs an 18- parallel-channel, scanned, time-multiplexed acousto-optical modulator. The successful scaling- up of the MIT holographic video system has depended on the application of the concepts of electronic and optical parallelism at every stage.

Since Lake Forest Symposium '91, when her paper recounted her holographic work in three locations, Kiev, Ukraine; Miami Beach, U.S.A.; and Paris, France; the author has worked in the laboratories of the Royal college of Art, London, England; Rijksuniversiteit, Gent, Belgium; Third Dimension, London, England; and in Point Reyes, California, U.S.A. A discussion of these ventures follows.

Improved performance holographic photopolymer films have been developed and are available for use in recording volume reflection holograms for display holography. This paper discusses the properties of images recorded in DuPont OmniDex^R 706 holographic recording film and images shifted in color using OmniDex^R GA2-RED color tuning film and the OmniDex dry color tuning process. Process of use and process latitude for both kinds of images are described. Several process variation methods for controlling the appearance of the final image are discussed.

The development of digital holographic technologies is placed in an historical context to show the leap forward they achieve for holographic imagery. The principles and techniques involved are examined and the technology illustrated, leading to a discussion of the advantages to be gained from using digital technology for the origination of holograms. di > ho Digital input-holographic output. This, simply stated, has been our research aim. We believe, along with an increasing number of others, that the future of holography is in the realm of the digital.

The business of holography is undergoing a paradigm shift, a shift that will usher in great opportunity. What was once considered a limited technology will become a premier enabling technology. With the achievement of the holy grail of holography -- full, true-color, real-time, holographic images -- business uses of the three-dimensional images will increase dramatically. The advent of live, interactive, true-color holography will propel the market of holography to a 1.9 billion-a-year market by the end of the decade, up from about $180 million in 1994.

The author discusses his relationship with art and with holography.

This is a report on the recent purchase and move of the collection of the former Museum of Holography in New York to the MIT Museum in Cambridge, Mass. Included is a background report on the MIT Museum and its collections along with a report on the cataloguing and re- housing of the holography collection and support files. In addition, the first exhibition of works from the collection and future plans for holography at the MIT museum are reviewed.

The Parisian Musee de l'Holographie was founded March 25, 1980 under the direction of Anne-Marie Christakis to promote holography, which was before then unknown to the general public. The following work highlights the museum and its activities.