A significant database of simultaneous measurements of NO₂ column amounts and aerosol optical properties has recently become available that permits partitioning between aerosol and gaseous absorption. The aerosol column absorption optical thickness, (AAOT) was inferred from the measurements of global and diffuse atmospheric transmittances by a UV-Multifilter Rotating Shadowband radiometer (UV-MFRSR), calibrated using AERONET CIMEL sun-sky radiometers. The NO₂ column amounts were measured using a double-Brewer MK III spectrometer (#171) operated in direct-sun mode using a new 6-wavelength retrieval algorithm. Ancillary measurements of column particle size distribution and refractive index in the visible wavelengths (by AERONET sun-sky almucantar inversions), ozone (by Brewer) and surface pressure constrained the forward radiative transfer model input, so that a unique solution for AAOT was obtained in each UV-MFRSR spectral channel. In fall-winter months with typically dry conditions and low aerosol loadings, the NO₂ absorption represented a significant source of error in aerosol absorption measurements. This was confirmed by UV-MFRSR AAOT retrievals at 325nm, where the NO₂ absorption cross-section is only half the value at 368nm. Thus, the NO₂ correction not only reduces AAOTs obtained from traditional aerosol remote sensing techniques (shadowband or Cimel sunphotometer), but also is capable of changing the spectral dependence of aerosol absorption, which could result in an incorrect interpretation of aerosol composition. To further confirm these findings, a new UV-MFRSR instrument was modified by adding a 440 nm channel to provide spectral overlap with AERONET AAOT inversions in the visible wavelengths.

O₃, SO₂ and NO₂ vertical column amounts and aerosol optical depths at 18 wavelengths from 303 to 363nm were measured daily for the past two years by using a Brewer MK3 double spectrometer in direct-sun mode. The algorithms used are described and compared to the standard algorithm. For O₃ and SO₂ the standard algorithm was modified by using all 6 measured wavelengths instead of only 4 or 5 and by including a correction for the diffuse irradiance entering the instrument's field of view. This reduces the statistical error of the retrievals by 40% and 50%, respectively, for O₃ and SO₂. The NO₂ retrievals are based on a spectral fitting technique using wavelengths between 349 and 363nm. A 'Bootstrap method' has been developed to calibrate the Brewer for NO₂ measurements. This method selects data with lowest NO₂-amounts and uses them to derive the needed extraterrestrial solar spectrum. We discuss possible reasons why an intent to apply to same technique for deriving total HCHO columns failed. The main advantage of direct sun methods compared to Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy DOAS is that the uncertainty in the air mass factor is significantly smaller. We think that a better correction for the diffuse irradiance entering the instrument's field of view will further improve the retrievals, especially in the low wavelength range (303 to 320nm) used for O₃ and SO₂.

Measurements of sky radiance have the potential to derive optical characteristics of tropospheric aerosols as aerosol optical depth, complex refraction index and aerosol size distribution. However, if the amount of aerosols is not very high, then the effect of polarization of diffuse sky radiance has to be considered, otherwise the derived aerosol parameters become very uncertain. The extension of these retrieval algorithms to the UV range provides additional information, but requires sophisticated radiative transfer models which account for polarization effects on molecular and aerosol scattering as well as for multiple scattering processes in the earth's atmosphere. Measurements of the degree of polarization in the UV and visible range under conditions with very low amounts of aerosols provide data for detailed model validation and for further model development. In 2004 measurements of polarization of diffuse sky radiance between 310 nm and 450 nm have been performed under cloudless conditions. Very low amounts of aerosols have been found in Lauder (New Zealand, 380 m above sea level). Scans of the sky in the vertical plane of the sun and in the horizontal plane through the sun with a 1.5° aperture were carried out with a polarization filter oriented at angles to the vertical between 0° and 135° every 45°. From these measurements, the Stokes-parameters for linear polarization are derived. The measurements at different solar zenith angles are compared with the results of radiative transfer modelling (libradtran), where no aerosols are considered. Reasonable agreement between measurements and modelling is found.

The data from the UV-RSS deployed at Table Mountain, Boulder Colorado since June 2003 are used to retrieve ozone column and aerosol Angstrom coefficients in the 290nm-380nm range. Retrievals are performed from Langley regression and from direct normal instantaneous irradiance.

From direct-to-diffuse ratios from UV Multifilter Rotating Shadowband Radiometers (MFRSR) we derive direct and diffuse high resolution total horizontal spectra from the collocated UV spectroradiometer of the USDA network. The direct beam spectra can be used in Langley regression that leads to spectroradiometric in situ calibration and to ozone column and aerosol optical depth retrievals. The high resolution direct spectra are used to obtain ozone column, and aerosol optical depth in the 290nm-360nm range at 0.1nm resolution.

The temporal variability of global ultraviolet solar spectral irradiance measured regularly at Thessaloniki, Greece during the last 15 years is presented. The measurements were conducted by a single- and a double-monochromator Brewer spectroradiometers which operate at the Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics since 1989 and 1993, respectively. Recently the entire series of measurements was re-evaluated and quality controlled, by revising the calibration history of the two instruments and by comparing these measurements with those obtained by a collocated erythemal radiometer and a pyranometer. In addition, the spectral measurements were corrected for the angular response error of each instrument and for the effect of temperature variations. The longest of the re-evaluated series, which was obtained by the single monochromator, was statistically analyzed to derive estimates of the long-term changes and variability of UV irradiance radiation. Daily integrals were derived with the aid of broadband measurements which were used to simulate the diurnal variation of the spectral irradiance at one minute increments. The effect of clouds and solar zenith angle on the log term variability of UV irradiance are also investigated. Finally, signals of inter-annual natural variations and oscillations on this data set are explored and removed in an attempt to attribute the observed variability to different factors or mechanisms and investigate their effects on the long term changes of UV irradiance at the ground. All long term changes that were calculated have positive signs and vary according to wavelength solar zenith angle and the period of data. Monthly erythemal irradiance increases in the 1990's by about 6%, possibly as a result of reduction of clouds and aerosols.

Spectral ultraviolet (UV) and visible irradiance has been measured at Palmer Station, Antarctica, between 1988 and 2004 with a SUV-100 spectroradiometer. The instrument is part of the U.S. National Science Foundation's UV Monitoring Network. Here we present a UV climatology for Palmer Station based on the recently produced "Version 2" data edition. This data set will supersede the original release "Version 0". Corrections applied to the new version increased biologically effective UV dose rates by 0-9%. Values of UV-A irradiance changed by -8% to +10%. A comparison with results of a radiative transfer model confirmed that measurements of different years are consistent to within ±5%. Total ozone column was calculated from UV spectra and was found to agree with measurements of NASA's Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) installed on the Nimbus-7 satellite to within 1%. TOMS measurements on the Earth Probe satellite are 3% lower than SUV-100 data. Effective surface albedo was estimated from clear sky spectra. Between August and November, albedo typically ranges between 0.6 and 0.95. After melting of snow and sea ice, albedo varies between 0.3 and 0.5. Biologically effective UV radiation is largest in November and December when low total ozone amounts coincide with relatively small solar zenith angles (SZA). During these months, the noon-time UV Index typically varies between 4 and 7, but UV indices as high as 14.8 have been observed. The largest erythemal daily dose of 8.8 kJ/m² was measured on 11/10/97 and 12/7/98. Linear regression analyses did not indicate statistically significant trends in UV or visible radiation, with the exception of February when small downward trends with statistical significance were observed. On average, clouds reduce UV irradiance at 345 nm between 28% (October and November) and 42% (February) compared to clear sky levels. In extreme cases, reductions by clouds can be as high as 90%. Between September and November, the variability introduced by ozone is similar to that caused by clouds.

During the austral summer 2003/04 the Institute for Meteorology and Climatology, University of Hannover, Germany, has deployed a newly developed spectroradiometric system at the permanent German Antarctic Neumayer Station (70° 39' S, 8° 15' W). Aim of this campaign was to characterize the solar radiation conditions in an Antarctic environment. These are different from other areas of the Earth due to extremely high reflection of the ground (albedo). Relatively low cloud optical depths and ozone depletion further contribute to rather different radiation conditions compared to mid-latitudes. The investigation of these conditions will improve the understanding of the impact of climate change and ozone depletion in polar regions. Spectral irradiance and radiance as well as luminance and spectral albedo have been measured in a wavelength range from 280 to 1050 nm. With this set of radiation parameters it is assured that directional information of incident radiation parameters as well as the impact of surface albedo can be investigated. Monitoring of radiation parameters is carried out by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany. Spectral irradiance from 290 to 400 nm has been measured since January 2001. UVB monitoring started in 1997. Broadband radiation parameters have been detected since 1981. Furthermore, the station participates in international networks initiated by the Word Climate Research Programme such as the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) and the Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW). It is also a complementary site of the Network for the Detection of Stratospheric Change (NDSC).

Spectral measurements of direct solar ultraviolet irradiance are very important for many applications in the field of atmospheric sciences. Despite its usefulness, few UV monitoring sites include such measurements in their regular observational programs. Standardization of measurement methodologies and calibration techniques is required in order to reach the quality standard of global irradiance measurements. This study presents preliminary results from an intercomparison campaign of seven UV spectroradiometers of different types that took place at the high altitude site of Izana (28.3°N, 16.5°W, 2367 m above sea level), in Tenerife, Canary Islands in June 2005. The campaign is focused primarily on spectral measurements of direct solar irradiance. Among the objectives is to improve the quality of direct solar irradiance spectral measurements, through instrumental modifications and standardization of calibration techniques, as well as to assess the significance of the differences in the field of view of the spectroradiometers with respect to aerosols and to solar zenith angle. Under the low aerosol conditions prevailing during this campaign, we aimed to establish the differences among the various instruments under "ideal" conditions. Moreover, continuous measurements under stable total ozone and aerosol optical depth will be used to determine the extraterrestrial solar flux, through the application of the Langley extrapolation method. A first comparison of sky radiance measurements of the zenith light and of various directions on the sky show effects of sensitivity to polarization of one type of instruments and the variability of the provisional radiance calibration of 4 instruments.

We analyzed long-term variations of UV irradiance 300-380 nm over Moscow 55.7N, 37.5E since 1968 using a complex dataset that includes ground-based UV measurements, UV retrievals from two satellites, and the results of a previously developed empirical model. Long-term interannual changes of UV irradiance, 300-380nm, during 1968-2003 show the absence of any linear trends although an increase is detected in the late 90-s due to cloud amount and aerosol content decrease. The ground-based data are compared with UV satellite retrievals from two independent methods as well as with the results of an empirical model that accounts for the physical dependence of UV on cloud parameters (amount and optical thickness), surface albedo, total ozone, and aerosol properties of the atmosphere. UV datasets over Moscow obtained from different satellite instruments: from the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) data (version 8) since 1979 and from METEOSAT/MVIRI since 1984. The original METEOSAT processor, using visibility observations at a nearby meteorological station to quantify the aerosol load, leads to a significant underestimation of the UV daily doses (-23% in warm period and -31% in cold period). Substituting the visibility observations by in situ monthly mean aerosol optical depth improves significantly the agreement in both warm and cold periods (respectively, -9% and -10%) but the bias still remains. The difference between TOMS UV retrievals and ground-based data has different signs in warm (+6%) and cold (-15%) periods. Applying off-line absorbing aerosol correction in TOMS UV retrievals eliminates the positive bias in warm period. The negative bias during the cold period can be due to the application of minimum Lambertian effective reflectivity (MLER) approach to determine the surface albedo especially in conditions with non stable snow cover (end of February- March, and November-December). Model reconstruction of UV variability demonstrates high correlation with aerosol corrected satellite UV retrievals (0.83-0.94) as well as with ground data (0.82) during warm period. During cold months the correlation between satellite UV retrievals and ground-based measurements is much worse.

The US Department of Agriculture's (USDA), UVB Radiation Monitoring and Research Program¹ makes routine measurements of ultraviolet radiation at over 30 sites in the United States, Canada and New Zealand. UV measurements of total, direct and diffuse horizontal irradiances, in seven spectral channels at two nm nominal bandwidths are made with a Yankee Scientific Inc., Multiple Filter Rotating Shadow band Radiometer (UV MFRSR). A similar instrument takes measurements in the visible region with 10 nm bandwidths. The UVB group has provided, upon request, a high resolution UV product referred to as "synthetic spectra," based on application of a non-linear estimation method described in Min and Harrison² (1998) to UV MFRSR data. This presentation examines typical problems encountered when the synthetic spectra algorithm is applied to data collected at large solar zenith angles and when the application is extended to spectral regions beyond 368 nm, the center of the longest wavelength UV MFRSR channel. In particular, the effects on derived products such as the Caldwell or Flint³ action spectra are discussed. The useful spectral region of the algorithm has been expanded by including one or more of the datum from the visible MFRSR. This extension properly constrains the derived spectrum beyond 368 nm providing especially improved Flint action values, and can be used to estimate a PAR value if extended to include the 862 nm measurement. The extent of disagreement between measurements from LICOR PAR sensors and 'synthetic PAR' values will be presented. Planning for the next version of the synthetic spectra algorithm on the new USDA UVB web site is discussed.

The estimation of ultraviolet-A radiation across the earth's surface is needed to model plant productivity and future impacts of ultraviolet-B radiation to plant productivity. We have evaluated the quality of broadband ultraviolet-A (UV-A) irradiance measurements within a UV climate monitoring network in the USA and developed a model to estimate the UV-A irradiance from measurements of the global spectral irradiance at 368-nm. The model was developed from ½ hour interval measurements made during 2000 at three locations across the United States and evaluated from ½ hour measurements made during 2000 through 2002 at seven locations. The stability of the UV-A irradiance sensors across the two year period was evaluated by comparison of changes in UV-A sensor response to changes in 368 nm AOD across years on the same (+/-3) day referenced to the change in UV-A response to changes in 368 nm AOD on sequential days during 2000. Most of the seven UV-A sensors installed during 1999 and 2000 appear to have remained stable (within detectable bounds) through 2004. UV-A irradiance was modeled using measured global 368-nm irradiance and empirical functions defining UV-A and 368-nm irradiance relationships derived from a radiative transfer model. The theoretical pseudo two stream discrete ordinates radiative transfer model provided baseline irradiance relationships between UV-A irradiance and 368-nm spectral irradiance. The model estimated the UV-A irradiance at seven locations across the USA with a mean bias error of 0.5 W m^-2 and a root mean squared error of 1.5 W m^-2. The model error was comparable to the combined effect of previously-estimated UV-A and 368-nm irradiance measurement errors but greater than that of the UV-A sensor alone.

Average albedo values were measured at three broad wavebands; UV region (295 - 385 nm), Total Solar Radiation, TSR, (305 - 2800 nm), and IR region (3500 - 50000 nm), over different surfaces in the Holy Mosque and Places in Makkah (21°.25 N, 39°.49 E). The Eppley Laboratory Radiometers of TUVR and PIR were used for UV and IR measurements respectively, while Kipp & Zonen Pyranometer of CM3 was adopted for the TSR observations. Measurements were performed during two different periods (summer 28/7-10/8/2004 at Holy Mosque and winter 18-30/1/2005 at Holy Places). Summer measurements showed that the average surface albedos of the Holy Mosque white marbles were 0.45, 0.70 and 1.14 at UV, TSR and IR regions respectively. These values have decreased to 0.12 and 0.18 at UV and TSR regions respectively over the Holy Mosque brown marbles. However, the average albedo value has increased to 1.38 at IR region due to the large Longwave radiation emission from the brown marble surfaces. The albedo values of the Holy Mosque red carpets were determined. The average albedo values were also measured over the Holy Places surfaces (18 m) of pilgrimage, (Muna and Arafat sites) during winter 2005. The observed average surface albedo values over Arafat selected area were 0.00, 0.22 and 1.18 at UV, TSR and IR regions respectively. The average albedo values over Muna selected area and Muna tents were also presented. The effect of clouds and solar zenith angle (SZA) on the measured albedo were investigated in this study.

The global solar UV index is an indicator for notifying the level of harmful solar ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the earth and the general public. It was proposed by the WHO/WMO/UNEP/ICNIRP and was standardized by the CIE in 2003. This index is derived from the product of the spectral solar UV irradiance from 250 to 400 nm and the CIE standard of reference erythema spectrum. For calculation of the UV index, the measurement of spectral solar UV irradiance is needed. Spectral radiometry is the best method of measurement of solar UV irradiance, however spectral radiometers are cost prohibitive. On the other hand, a narrow-band solar UV-B radiometer is widely used for measurement of solar UV-B irradiance in the world. The Tokai Solar Radiation Monitoring Network, and the UV Monitoring Network-Japan performed by the National Institute for Environmental Studies are two examples of monitoring networks using narrow-band solar UV-B radiometer in Japan. In this paper an estimation method of the UV index from the measured UV-B irradiance with the narrow-band UV-B radiometer.

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) employ the 1000 watt FEL-type quartz-tungsten-halogen (QTH) lamp as its transfer device for the spectral irradiance scale. The cost of the calibrated lamps from the NIST makes it prohibitive to use them for routine calibrations. To dilute the costs and extend the working lifetime of the lamps it is customary to transfer the NIST scale to secondary lamps and then using these to transfer to tertiary (working standards) lamps. NOAA's Central UV Calibration Facility (CUCF) currently owns six of the NIST primary standards of spectral irradiance. The CUCF transfers the spectral irradiance scale from the NIST primaries to secondary standards, which in this case are also used as working standards. Careful seasoning and screening of the secondary lamps is essential to achieve the maximum benefit out of this transfer and the operation of the expensive primary standards. The process of lamp seasoning and screening techniques used by the CUCF is described here. They include visual inspection of the lamp envelope, filament and lead wires during each step of the screening process. Also, the temporal stability of the lamp irradiance, lamp current and voltage and anomalous emission and absorption lines is discussed. Some of the problems that the CUCF has found with lamps are also shown.

The impact of increased solar ultraviolet-B (UV-B) exposure due to stratospheric ozone depletion can negatively affect plant growth and physiology, decreasing crop productivity. While some effects of prolonged elevated UV-B exposure on plants is clear, relatively little is known about the short-term effects of UV-B exposure, although, there are evidence of short-term UV-B increases that likely occur during summer. Two greenhouse experiments were conducted to examine the short-term effects of UV-B exposure on stomatal conductance (gs), UV-B absorbing compounds and photosynthetic pigment concentrations of soybean cultivars Glycine max [L.] Merr. cvs. Essex and Williams 82. Results showed that changes in leaf reflectance at 552 and 714 nm with UV exposure appear to be linked to UV-B induced alterations in pigment concentrations and the changes in reflectance seemed to be more dependent on the period of exposure rather than the UV-B dosage received. The UV-B exposed Williams 82 exhibited lower gs compared to UV-B exposed Essex throughout the experiment. The concentrations of carotenoids, chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll in leaf extracts were unchanged in response to an 18-h UV-B treatment in Essex but they increased significantly in Williams 82. Anthocyanin did not change significantly in either cultivar after the 18-h exposure. The 18-h UV exposure did result in substantially higher of UV-B absorbing compounds in Essex compared to Williams 82. Results of a 6-h UV-B exposure caused an induction of Chlorophyll a/b binding protein (CAB) and Phenyl ammonia lyase (PAL) in the irradiated leaves of Williams 82 and Essex and an up regulation in Chalcone synthase (CHS) in Williams but not in Essex. Further work should assess whether these short-term responses are related to the long-term UV-B mechanisms of damage and protection in soybeans and examine how the induction of genes are related to sensitivity of soybeans to UV-B stress.

A critical question in ultraviolet-B radiation research is how different portions of the solar spectrum influence plant UV B sensitivity. Field-grown plants show only subtle responses to supplemental UV-B radiation in many aspects of growth, yet plants grown under low visible light (as in most growth chambers and greenhouses) show much more discernible changes. Here we assess a specific aspect of UV-B sensitivity in plants grown under lower PAR: when one maintains a constant proportion of UV-B to PAR, but different absolute irradiance levels, does plant sensitivity to UV-B change? We conducted field experiments at near-ambient PAR and enhanced UV-B, and also with reduced irradiance in both wavebands, on three species. Each of these species occurs in both open and shaded habitats. We found the grass Setaria viridis sensitive to UV-B radiation only when grown at lower irradiances, while the forb Geranium viscosissimum was only sensitive to UV-B at the higher irradiances. In the grass Elymus glaucus, UV-B sensitivity did not appear to be influenced by the irradiance levels. Species appear to respond differently to these changes in irradiance levels, and an array of physiological and anatomical mechanisms are likely involved.

The effects of ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation on seven cotton (DP 458B/RR, DP 5415RR, FM 832B, NuCOTN 33B, Pima S7, Tamcot HQ95 and SG 521B) and six soybean (D 88-5320, D 90-9216, Stalwart III, PI 471938, DG 5630RR, and DP 4933RR) genotypes were evaluated in sunlit controlled-environment chambers under optimum water, nutrient and temperature conditions. Plants were exposed to UV-B radiation levels of 4, 8, 12 and 16 (cotton); and 0, 5, 10 and 15 kJ m^-2 d^-1 (soybean) from emergence to 31 days after sowing (DAS) in cotton and 58 DAS in soybean. Growth and physiological responses were measured and quantified. Higher UV-B significantly reduced dry matter production, plant height, leaf area in all genotypes compared to control plants in both the crops; however, significant genotypic differences in the magnitude of the UV-B induced changes were observed. Cumulative stress response index (CSRI), the sum of individual percentage of relative responses to UV-B radiation, total response index (TRI), the sum of CSRI at all the levels of UV-B for each genotype were used to classify the genotypes for UV-B tolerance. The TRI ranged from -195 to - 417 in soybean and -40 to -524 in cotton. Based on TRI, cotton genotypes, DP 458B/RR, NuCOTN 33B and DP 5415RR were classified as tolerant; Pima S7, and FM 832B as intermediate; and SG 521B, and Tamcot HQ95 as sensitive. In soybean, PI 471938 was tolerant; Stalwart III and D 88-5320 as intermediate; DG 5630RR, DP 4933RR and D 90-9216 were identified as sensitive genotypes. Even though, relative injury of the leaves decreased and phenolic concentrations increased with increasing UV-B in all genotypes, there were no significant correlations between these parameters and TRI of the genotypes in either crop. The observed genotypic differences suggest that it is possible to breed and select UV-B tolerant soybean and cotton genotypes for a niche environment.

The induction of UV-B screening compounds in response to exposure to UV-B radiation is a commonly reported response and is generally considered to be an adaptive response of plants for protection from UVinduced damage. However, a number of questions remain to be answered including the importance of qualitative and localization differences among species in providing protection, indirect consequences of changes in leaf secondary chemistry on ecological processes and the dose response of metabolite accumulation. In this study we utilized UV monitoring data provided on site by the USDA UV-B Monitoring and Research Program to monitor the changes in UV-screening compounds in soybeans under a range of UV-B levels due to natural variation in ambient UV-B radiation. Soybean cultivars Essex, Clark and Clark-magenta, an isoline of Clark that produces minimal levels of flavonols, were grown beneath shelters covered either with polyester to block most UV-B radiation or teflon which is nearly transparent in the UV range and harvested at regular intervals for pigment and protein analysis. Daily levels of weighted UV-B varied from <1 to >7 kJ m^-2. Increases in UV-screening compounds showed a positive dose response to UV-B radiation in all cultivars with Essex showing the steepest dose response. UV-A also induced screening compounds in all species The hydroxycinnimates of the magenta isoline showed a steep dose response to UV-A and a rather constant (non dose specific) but small additional increment in response to UV-B. The Clark isoline, which produced primarily the flavonol quercetin, showed a dose response to UV-B intermediate between that of Clark-magenta and Essex. All three cultivars show similar tolerance to UV-B in field conditions indicating that UV-induced pigment production is adequate to protect them from excessive UV-B damage.

This paper explores the literature on ultraviolet irradiance (UV) in urban ecosystems with respect to the likely effects on human health. The focus was the question of whether the health effects of UV radiation should be included in planning of landscape elements such as trees and shading structures. In examining the literature, special attention was given to seeking information on the question of whether it is important that shade be provided for elementary school play areas, and if so, how should it be accomplished? Before such practical questions could be dealt with, it became obvious that answers to several pertinent secondary questions had to be sought. Foremost of these was, what are the negative and positive health effects of UV exposure? Recent epidemiological findings of apparent benefits of sunlight because of vitamin-D photosynthesis and resulting anti-cancer effects make this highly relevant. Another basic question is that of trends in ozone depletion, which leads to interesting questions of long-term trends, short-term extremes, and urban influences on UV irradiance. A host of these and other pertinent questions, such as, "What is the relationship between climate of a location and dress," i.e., "How much exposure will people receive during time spent outdoors?" require much more study. Judging from current knowledge of typical spectra of solar radiation in tree shade and the difference between the action spectra for vitamin D synthesis and erythema in human skin, exposure to solar radiation in tree shade for a short period of time can be somewhat more beneficial for vitamin D synthesis and regulation than detrimental in producing sunburn.

This paper will overview the significant issues facing researchers in relating the impact of exposure to sunlight and human health. Exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation is the major causative factor in most sun-related skin and eye disorders, however, very little is known quantitatively about human UV exposures. Interestingly, human exposure to sunlight also has a nutritional impact, namely the development of pre-Vitamin D, which is an important nutrient in bone health. New research suggest that low vitamin D status may be a causative factor in the development of selective types of cancer and autoimminue diseases, as well as a contributing factor in bone health. The 'health duality' aspect of sunlight exposure is an interesting and controversial topic that is a research focus of Kimlin's research group.

Exposures to UVA radiation (320 − 400 nm) have been linked to increasing the risk of skin cancer, premature skin photoageing and skin wrinkling. The relative proportion of the UVA irradiances in the solar spectrum changes with time of day and season. Material such as window glass found in offices, homes and motor vehicles acts as a barrier to the shorter solar UVB wavelengths (280 - 320 nm) and transmits some of the longer UVA wavelengths (dependent on the type of glass). As a result, the spectrum of the filtered UV transmitted through the material may be substantially different from that of the unfiltered solar UV spectrum. This results in a change in the relative ratio of UVA to UVB irradiances and a consequent change in the biologically damaging UV exposures. For these environments where the UVB wavelengths have been removed and the UVA wavelengths are still present, it is necessary to consider the erythemal irradiances due to these UVA wavelengths only. This paper investigates the times taken for an exposure of 1 SED (standard erythemal dose) due to the UVA wavelengths.

Moderate exposure to sunlight is a key factor in maintaining adequate levels of vitamin D. Vitamin D sufficiency is associated with reduced incidence of many forms of cancer, osteoporotic fractures, multiple sclerosis, and other diseases. However, excessive ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure may be associated with melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancer. An estimated 50,000-60,000 individuals die prematurely from cancer annually due to insufficient vitamin D in the US. The annual economic burden due to vitamin D insufficiency from inadequate exposure to solar ultraviolet B (UVB) or deficient oral intake is estimated at $46-65 billion, while that for excessive UVR exposure is $5-7 billion (1). Since excessive UVR exposure is not required for adequate vitamin D photosynthesis, increasing national guidelines for vitamin D intake and de-stigmatizing appropriate solar UVB exposure would substantially reduce medical care costs. This report describes an algorithm for estimating the annual number of dollars that could be saved and deaths from colorectal cancer that could be prevented by moderate daily exposure to sunlight or increased oral intake of vitamin D₃. If the assumptions of this analysis are valid, moderate exposure to sunlight or adequate oral intake of vitamin D₃ would prevent 10 deaths from colorectal cancer for every death from skin cancer that it might induce, and would save $11 billion per year. Reference: (1) Grant WB, Garland CF, Holick MF. Comparisons of estimated economic burdens due to insufficient solar ultraviolet (UV) irradiation or vitamin D and excess solar UV irradiation. Photochem Photobiol. In press.

Although most ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation is absorbed by stratospheric ozone, dense anthropogenic sulfate aerosols in the troposphere may further attenuate UVB in some regions. Mortality rates from colon and breast cancer tend to be much higher in areas with low levels of UVB radiation. These high rates may be due in part to inadequate cutaneous photosynthesis of vitamin D. Satellite data on atmospheric aerosols, stratospheric ozone, and cloud cover were obtained from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These data were combined with age-adjusted mortality rates from 175 countries reporting to the World Health Organization. Regression was used to assess the relationship of stratospheric ozone thickness, aerosol optical depth, cloud cover, solar UVB irradiance at the top of the atmosphere, average skin exposure, and a dietary factor with colon and breast cancer mortality rates. Solar UVB irradiance at the top of the atmosphere, total cloud cover, and atmospheric aerosols had the strongest associations with mortality rates, apart from a strong influence of diet. Since 95% of circulating vitamin D is derived from current or stored products of photosynthesis, which may be nonexistent or minimal much of the year above 37°N or below 37°S, attenuation of UVB by atmospheric aerosols and clouds may have a greater than expected adverse effect on human health.

An understanding of the effect of aerosols on biologically- and photochemically-active UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface is important for many ongoing climate, biophysical, and air pollution studies. In particular, estimates of the UV characteristics of the most common Australian aerosols will be valuable inputs to UV Index forecasts, air quality studies, and assessments of the impact of regional environmental changes. Based on MODIS fire maps and MISR aerosol property retrievals, we have analyzed the climatological distributions of Australian dust and smoke particles and have identified sites where collocated ground-based UV-B and ozone measurements were available during episodes of relatively high aerosol activity. Since at least June 2003, overhead ozone and surface UV spectra (285-450 nm) have been measured routinely at Darwin and Alice Springs in Australia by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM). Using collocated AERONET sunphotometer measurements at Darwin and collocated BoM sunphotometer measurements at Darwin and Alice Springs, we identified several episodes of relatively high aerosol activity that could be used to study the effects of dust and smoke on the UV-B solar irradiance at the Earth's surface. To assess smoke effect we compared the measured UV irradiances at Darwin with irradiancies simulated with the LibRadtran radiative transfer model for aerosol-free conditions. We found that for otherwise similar atmospheric conditions, aerosols reduced the UVB irradiance by 50% near the fire source and up to 15% downwind. We also found the effect of smoke particles to be 5 to 10% larger in the UV-B part of the spectrum. For the selected period at Darwin, changes in the aerosol loadings gave larger variations in the surface UV irradiances than previously reported changes seen in the ozone column. We are continuing similar investigations for the Alice Springs site to assess spectral differences between smoke and dust aerosols.

Solar UV radiation interacts both with atmospheric constituents, producing photochemical reactions, and with the biosphere, inducing changes or protection responses. Important for humans are the skin and eye diseases that result from UV exposure, in particular from social or recreational exposure. This leads to an evaluation of risks and to an assessment of suitable prevention strategies. Therefore, the correct evaluation of the available environmental dose is important; in fact, only a fraction of UV radiation will be absorbed by individuals depending on their outdoor activity. The more dense the UV solar network is, the more the doses will be correct. This paper shows the results of research carried out in Vigna di Valle (Rome, Italy) during spring 2004. The available environmental doses are evaluated by the WL4UV empirical model, developed by the authors, utilizing the solar UV spectral irradiance measured by a GUV 511C multichannel radiometer. The spectra of a wide range Brewer spectrophotometer (286.5 - 363.0 nm) have been assumed as reference. As an evaluation of the model in cloudy situations, an analysis in San Diego, Calif., USA, with a SUV 100 spectroradiometer is also shown.

Ultraviolet radiation may cause erythema and damage to DNA of the human skin. The Environment Agency of Japan published a health care guidance for ultraviolet radiation in June, 2003, and suggested to protect skin from excessive ultraviolet radiation. Therefore, the amount of exposure to ultraviolet radiation must be measured. Skin exposure can be precisely calculated by spectrally measuring the distribution of sky ultraviolet radiation. The distribution measurements of sky radiation and surface ultraviolet reflection are done in this research.

A low cost, portable spectrometer was evaluated for use in collecting signature spectra from vegetation at three riparian sites in Colorado 6/8/05 - 6/11/05. An Ocean Optics HR4000CG-UV-NIR spectrometer configured with a fiber optics coupled Teflon diffuser was used to obtain reflectance spectra from a number of invasive and natural riparian plant species at wavelengths spanning 400 to 900 nm. A number of tests were conducted to quantify sources of measurement error. These tests included a determination of dark and stray light bias, wavelength registration, and integration time corrections over constant and varying temperature. Reflectance spectra from artificial and natural targets were collected in concert with NASA-Goddard and NASA-Stennis field teams utilizing an Analytical Spectral Devices (ASD) FieldSpec Pro FR spectrometer (350 to 2500 nm). A brief comparison of reflectance spectra obtained with the HR4000CG-UV-NIR and the FieldSpec Pro FR is presented. Future work is discussed.

The present report evaluated ultraviolet radiation (UVR) effects on the spectral signature of mycotoxin producing fungus Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus). Ultraviolet radiation has long been used to reduce microbe contamination and to inactivate mold spores. In view of the known effects of UVR on microorganisms, and because certain spectral bands in the signature of some fungi may be in the UV range, it is important to know the maximum acceptable limit of UVR exposure that does not significantly alter the fungal spectral signature and affect detection accuracy. A visible-near-infrared (VNIR) hyperspectral imaging system using focal plane pushbroom scanning for high spatial and spectral resolution imaging was utilized to detect any changes. A. flavus cultures were grown for 5 days and imaged after intermittent or continuous UVR treatment. The intermittent group was treated at 1-minute intervals for 10 minutes, and VNIR images were taken after each UVR treatment. The continuous group was irradiated for 10 minutes and imaged before and after treatment. A control sample group did not undergo UVR treatment, but was also imaged at 1-minute intervals for 10 minutes in the same manner as the intermittent group. Before and after UVR treatment, mean fungal sample reflectance was obtained through spatial subset of the image along with standard deviation and pre- and post-treatment reflectance was compared for each sample. Results show significant difference between the reflectances of treated and control A. flavus cultures after 10 min of UV radiation. Aditionally, the results demonstrate that even lethal doses of UVR do not immediately affect the spectral signature of A. flavus cultures suggesting that the excitation UV light source used in the present experiment may be safe to use with the UV hyperspectral imaging system when exposure time falls below 10 min.

Eight cultivars each of red and green leaf lettuce were raised in a greenhouse with supplemental UV radiation, either UV-A (wavelengths greater than ca. 315 nm) or UV-A+UV-B (wavelengths greater than ca. 290 nm; 6.4 kJ m^-2 daily biologically effective UV-B), or no supplemental UV (controls). Several phytonutrients were analyzed in leaf flours to identify lines with large differences in composition and response to UV-B. Red leaf lettuce had higher levels of phenolic acid esters, flavonols and anthocyanins than green lines. Both green and red lines exposed to UV-B for 9 days showed 2-3-fold increases in flavonoids compared to controls, but only 45% increases in phenolic acid esters, suggesting these compounds may be regulated by different mechanisms. There were large differences between cultivars in levels of phenolic compounds under control conditions and also large differences in UV-B effects. Among red varieties, cv. Galactic was notable for high levels of phenolics and a large response to UV-B. Among green varieties, cvs. Black-Seeded Simpson and Simpson Elite had large increases in phenolics with UV-B exposure. Photosynthetic pigments were also analyzed. Green leaf lettuce had high levels of pheophytin, a chlorophyll degradation product. Total chlorophylls (including pheophytin) were much lower in green compared to red varieties. Lutein, a carotenoid, was similar for green and red lines. Total chlorophylls and lutein increased 2-fold under supplemental UV-B in green lines but decreased slightly under UV-B in red lines. Lettuce appears to be a valuable crop to use to study phytochemical-environment interactions.

Although our understanding of the effects of UV-B radiation on annual and crop plants has improved considerably over the past three decades, knowledge of effects on perennial plants, particularly trees, remains much more limited. Understanding the effects of enhanced UV-B radiation on forest trees has been hampered by an inability to develop realistic dose-response relationships, which in turn, has resulted from lack of instrumentation sufficient to accurately determine biologically effective UV irradiances within the canopy. Traditional spectroradiometers equipped with spherical domes have sensor heads that are too large to make within-canopy measurements, especially at individual leaf locations or other small targets. Broad-band sensors, which are smaller, lack the wavelength discrimination necessary to calculate biological effective UV-B radiation. Measurement of UV radiation above a plant canopy provides little information about the radiation environment of individual leaves within the canopy. This is important because whole plant response to UV-radiation is an integrated response of all of the leaves, though obviously not all leaves contribute equally. Within leaves, stress stimuli may induce compensatory responses in unaffected portions of the same leaf, in other adjacent leaves, and even in remote leaves. It is not known if this is true for W radiation; the only way of finding out is to have a probe small enough to measure diminutive and precise locations within the canopy. In this study a StellarNet EPP2000C spectrometer equipped with a 400 μm optical fiber and Teflon diffuser was used to determine solar UV-B irradiances above and within the canopy of representative forest trees. Data was collected at different times during the day, for equivalent leaf and canopy positions in several representative trees. Data collected in the open and below-canopy positions are compared with an Optronics OL-754 spectroradiometer and data obtained at the USDA UVB Monitoring and Research Program field site at Albion, Washington. Results are considered in the context of precision, accuracy and logistical attributes. Sufficient precision and accuracy were shown to suggest that, with proper calibration, this inexpensive and highly portable instrument can be used to make precise measurements of solar UV-B radiation within tree canopies.

Extensive sensitivity and error characteristics of a recently developed optimal estimation retrieval algorithm which simultaneously determines aerosol optical depth (AOD), aerosol single scatter albedo (SSA) and total ozone column (TOC) from ultra-violet irradiances are described. The algorithm inverts measured diffuse and direct irradiances at 7 channels in the UV spectral range obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) UV-B Monitoring and Research Program's (UVMRP) network of 33 ground-based UV-MFRSR instruments to produce aerosol optical properties and TOC at all seven wavelengths. Sensitivity studies of the Tropospheric Ultra-violet/Visible (TUV) radiative transfer model performed for various operating modes (Delta-Eddington versus n-stream Discrete Ordinate) over domains of AOD, SSA, TOC, asymmetry parameter and surface albedo show that the solutions are well constrained. Realistic input error budgets and diagnostic and error outputs from the retrieval are analyzed to demonstrate the atmospheric conditions under which the retrieval provides useful and significant results. After optimizing the algorithm for the USDA site in Panther Junction, Texas the retrieval algorithm was run on a cloud screened set of irradiance measurements for the month of May 2003. Comparisons to independently derived AOD's are favorable with root mean square (RMS) differences of about 3% to 7% at 300nm and less than 1% at 368nm, on May 12 and 22, 2003. This retrieval method will be used to build an aerosol climatology and provide ground-truthing of satellite measurements by running it operationally on the USDA UV network database.