This paper reviews a variety of techniques used for securing lenses in their mechanical surrounds and for the design of those surrounds so as to ensure proper function of the assembled parts in the intended environment. Mounting arrangements for individual lenses and for combinations of lenses are described briefly. The treatment progresses from simple, low-precision designs to more complex and higher precision versions. Component sizes considered here range from a few centimeters to tens of centimeters in diameter. Techniques for analyzing glass-to-metal interface designs to determine their adequacy when exposed to varying environmental conditions are summarized.

The cost to fabricate most mechanical systems and components is in inverse proportion to the tolerances applicable. Each system performance requirement has various sensitivities to errors in certain parameters (dimensions). The total cost to produce a system is the sum of the cost of each tolerance plus certain constant factors that cannot be reduced. The performance errors of the system are the sum of the contributions of each tolerance. This paper describes a methodology that allows the designer to assign and distribute the optical/mechanical tolerances in a system to minimize the cost of production while maintaining required system performance. The practical application of this method can lead to significantly reduced cost and increased ease of manufacture without risking or sacrificing performance.

A methodology is discussed for defining mirror quality requirements (as a function of spectral bandpass, type of object being viewed and type of background). The application of the methodology to several current and future large mirror systems is described. The major parameter is the surface power spectral density function; means of proper specification and measurement are discussed, along with their impact on encircled energy and scatter. The effects of diffraction are considered, including low, mid-, and high spatial frequency surface errors and surface "quilting" associated with large lightweighted mirrors.

Perkin-Elmer fabricated two 9.5-inch diameter beryllium mirror blanks using an advanced powder metallurgy process to produce a monolithic, lightweight structure with honeycomb interior weighing 2.16 pounds. The new beryllium material exhibits improved isotropy as measured by x-ray diffraction techniques. The mechanical properties meet or exceed the published values for commercially available vacuum hot pressed beryllium block. In addition, the material is readily polished to good figure and surface quality and has demonstrated potential for lower scatter than standard material. The monolithic sandwich construction demonstrated in the program is exceptionally stiff, permitting large lightweight mirrors to be constructed. A scaled-up 36-inch diameter mirror would weigh only 31 pounds using the technology demonstrated in the project. It is estimated that with minor modification in the process this weight could be halved.

In 1974 Simpson, et al. showed how a half-silvered Hindle sphere could be used, in conjunction with auxiliary null optics, to test convex paraboloidal and hyperboloidal surfaces. An extension of this concept has been made. A partially-reflective surface and a nearly aplanatic surface form a single-element, low-power null lens which can be used to test a particular ellipsoid or hyperboloid. Two embodiments of such a lens have been constructed to test convex ellipsoids. The singlet null lens is used in a Fizeau configuration. It provides superior correction to a more conventional null lens, is insensitive to misalignment, and is calibrated by test in a stand-alone mode.

A split-lens stadimeter is a range measuring device which uses one of a submarine periscope's relay lenses to determine the angle subtended by the target. The doublet relay lens is split on the diameter permitting the viewer to displace one of the two images of the target vertically. The lens displacement provides an analog voltage of the angle subtended by the target which is used along with target height to calculate the range of the target. In the infinity position, the lens performance must be equal to the other relay lenses in the system, so special design details and alignment procedures are necessary.

This paper discusses some of the Value Engineering approaches that were employed in the design and fabrication of optical sighting devices designed to be used in tracked vehicles subjected to conditions of severe shock and vibration as well as wide variations in temperature. Various avenues of approach are examined as the relate to the achievement of design to unit production cost (DTUPC) goals for medium volume production programs.

A new detection method named 3D-SCAN DETECTION has been developed. The method can detect three dimensional profiles of etched pattern on an inner layer of multilayer printed circuit boards (PC boards). In this system, one scanning of a laser beam allows the simultaneous detection of both top and bottom widths of an etched pattern (standard width and thickness: 100 x 35 μm) to within an accuracy of 10 pm. A prototype of 3D-SCAN DETECTION has been experimentally confirmed to have sufficient performance for the detection of such flaws as nicks in a copper pattern and poor spacing between adjacent conductors.

This paper describes two automated electro-optical stations that perform realtime inspection of printed wiring boards (PWBs) in a manufacturing environment. Each station uses significant-feature extraction as a non-reference form of digital image processing to eval-uate PWB adherence to prescribed tolerances, and each station will determine the significant defects that exist on a manufactured PWB. One station will be dedicated to the evaluation of defects present on detail or unpopulated boards, inner layers, and artwork; a second station will inspect the solder integrity of populated PWBs. Both stations use a CCD camera with a 480 x 388 element format and zoom optics to view a PWB in both local and global viewing aspects. Board acceptability will depend on criteria established by MIL and quality control standards and by design requirements. This paper discusses the general design of each station, including illumination conditions, station control, and PWB handling. Image processing considerations and manufacturing limitations are highlighted, and this paper outlines the use of an electro-optical station simulator for algorithm development and station design.

In this parer we introduce two, three and multiple light sources of grating irradiation type of moire contourography mathematical equations. These mathematical equation shows the relationship of the contour moire fringes and it's influence coefficients. It is very useful to measure errors.

A new photographic instrumentation system has been developed for PHRI Geotechnical Centrifuge. The system is consisting of two 70 mm format pulse, data cameras with 1,000 ft magazine, two high intensity short duration flash units, a sequence control unit, a film projector, a screen digitizer, and a data processor. By means of these components, it has been succeeded to take the data at the accuracy of ±0.1 mm on the flying object at the speed of around 300 km/h.

A dual channel optical projector of very high performance, for use in a flight simulator is described. The trade-offs and compromises required in four distinct disciplines (optical, mechanical, electronic engineering, and computer sciences) to successfully integrate and produce a useable instrument in eight months is emphazied.

This paper discusses spectroradiometric instruments and applications. Multiple-detector spectroradiometers and single-detector scanning spectroradiometers are described, with particular emphasis on current state-of-the-art integrated systems. Applications discussed include: color measurement (colorimetry); photometry and colorimetry of cathode-ray-tubes , light-emitting-diodes and other displays; photometry and colorimetry of light sources and flash lamps; and colorimetry of reflective and transmissive materials. Future trends are also discussed.

The process of designing line-of-sight stabilization systems is an interdisciplinary process that requires interaction of mechanical engineers, electronics designers, and servo analysts as well as the optics engineer. The decisions made by the optics designer can have a significant impact upon the final system configuration and performance that is achieved. The stabilization mechanism must support the optical package, must not obstruct the line-of-sight, and must be balanced in order to achieve the desired degree of inertial stabilization. This paper defines the common approaches used to achieve line-of-sight stabilization and discusses the design process that is followed as stabilization systems are conceived and fabricated. Attention is then given to the impact of some of the decisions made by the optics designer and the resultant constraints that are imposed upon the stabilization design by these choices.

There are many applications for the use of optical instruments in vehicles, especially in the military. It is required that these instruments function while the vehicle is on the move, in rough terrain. Angular distrubances of the line-of-sight pointing vector can render these instruments useless as observation or pointing devices, due to image blurring. Instruments that must retain resolution in this environment are usually stabilized by means of gimbals. If the entire instrument (such as a large television camera) is to be stabilized, the problem becomes one of a simple stable platform, or, a single axle gimbal. If, however, the instrument is hard mounted to the vehicle and the image is instead to be stabilized by means of a compensating optical component, such as a periscope head mirror, the problem is a little more complex. In a periscopic sight the head mirror must be driven at half-speed to the line-of-sight disturbance to compensate for the angle doubling effect of the mirror. That is, in order to stabilize the line-of-sight, the mirror cannot be inertiallv stable, but must be coupled to a stable mass at a ratio of 1:2. In many applications it is necessary to transmit the elevation angle of the line-of-sight to a fire control system, or, to direct the lines-of-sight of other platforms. In order to do this, transducers are mounted on the "drive axle", (gyros, synchros, tachometers, potentiometers, motors), which detect and trasmit the angular position and rate of the elevation line-of-sight. This drive axle becomes the stable element and is coupled to the mirror axle, at a 2:1 ratio, by means of gears or metallic belts or bands. This is a double axle gimbal system. When subjected to a rotational disturbance such as boat or vehicle motion the inertias of the drive and mirror axles react with one-another to cause a displacement of the line-of-sight pointing vector. This disturbance is a dynamic coupling of inertias. It exists even in the absence of friction. The subject of this paper is a mechanism analysis of a band drive system with more than one axle and more than one inertia. It is concluded that in a 2:1 band drive system one should maximize the drive axle inertia and minimize the mirror axle inertia. When this is not adequate it is shown that it is possible to add a third axle parallel to the drive axle and mirror axle to cancel out the deleterious effects of the dynamic coupling between the first two inertias.

The effect of elliptic orbit motion on the blurring in an optical sensor was evaluated. The magnitude of the uncompensated relative velocity, the smear velocity, can influence the selection of an orbit for the mission as well as the signal processing requirements. A model of the orbital kinematics and the optical projection effects for a surveillance spacecraft was developed in order to determine the smear velocity. The center of the sensor's field of view (CFOV) is assumed to be directed to track a point of interest on the earth's surface in order to reduce the relative motion. Two different modes of tracking the point are considered: two-axis tracking and three-axis tracking. The lateral variation of the smear velocity across the field of view (FOV) was analyzed. This effect, in conjunction with the frame time, contributes to the smearing or blurring of the image. It must be assessed along with the clutter effects in an evaluation of the image degradation. The smear velocity may range from zero to over 300 meter/second in a typical orbit. The effect would be greater than the effect of drifting clouds in the background. The effect generally increases with increased displacement from the CFOV, and it changes significantly with the observation position along the elliptic orbit.

This paper discusses the Human Factors or Ergonomic considerations related to the manual control of an optical line of sight. The general concept of the human operator as an element in the servo loop is presented, along with some examples of how this concept has been used in the design of optical tracking devices. "Aided Tracking" is described. Comparisons are made between commonly used force and displacement joysticks. Bibliographical references are provided.

The autotracker is the least well understood, and least reliable, part of an automatic video tracking system. This paper describes some of the design considerations in selecting an autotracker.

Thermal imaging system technology has grown from a lab curiosity in the early sixties to the point where today it is a key element in military night operations. This paper briefly reviews the historical developments, describes the current state of the art, and discusses the main aspects of advanced programs aimed at future applications.