After many years in the reconnaissance business, having had the good fortune to participate both operationally and as a staff person, and now, broadening my perspectives even further by dint of my current role as an all-source intelligence collection manager, I have distilled in my mind that there are four major, consistent underlying factors or elements that control or direct the "fate," so to speak, of most all functional areas such as airborne reconnaissance and the systems or specific assets that compose the "tools" used in that area. I would really rather talk about flying fast in the weeds in an RF-4, but my four main "factors" are, I think, worth reviewing with you. They are: the political factor; the operational factor; the technological factor and the one that I will dwell most on here today -the budget / acquisition factor. The thrust is to try to get our hands around what really does influence which reconnaissance systems we acquire and how many, when we get them and how and where we use them. There are obvious interlinkages between the "factors" that I will discuss, but I will truly try to keep the convolutions and opacity to a minimum.

Air National Guard tactical reconnaissance, although a viable asset, is relegated to a lesser role in peacetime than one should expect. The fact that systems for reconnaissance are not being upgraded in peacetime means that the tactical commander, as well as reconnaissance crews, will be unable to perform the mission as might be expected to support wartime requirements.

This presentation briefly traces the history of MBB. Reconnaissance developments are detailed starting with early approaches leading via the F-104 G and RF-4E to the TORNADO Reconnaissance System. Emphasis is given particular to reconnaissance pod developments at MBB in support of the TORNADO and other weapon systems. The Presentation includes a careful analysis of the present state-of-the-art in recce programms, along with attention to the challenging task of providing reconnaissance for future scenarios.

Production design, fabrication, and flight testing have recently been completed on the RF-5E aircraft. The design of this single-cockpit tactical reconnaissance aircraft includes multiple sensor pallets, a photographic-sensor control system computer with automatic sensor operation, and a television viewfinder system, all of which are contained within a new structure designed to provide quick access to sensor equipment. Flight test results from sensor resolution flights at Edwards AFB and Eglin AFB verify the high inflight film resolution achievable with the stable RF-5E platform. System performance guarantees were satisfactorily met, and the first two aircraft have been delivered on schedule to the first customer. The RF-5E aircraft weapon system was completely developed and paid for with company funds.

This paper describes the RS-700 series of infrared line scanner (IRLS) systems in terms of their performance parameters. IRLS capabilities and limitations are discussed in terms of the mission, weather, slant range, and scanner design. Influences of system performance in regard to the reconnaissance mission are described, and examples of RS-700 IRLS imagery are presented to show the unique features of infrared imagery.

The advent of electro-optical reconnaissance sensors which incorporate silicon Charge Coupled Device (CCD) detectors has prompted the development of a number of objective lenses optimized to match their spectral and system-dominated requirements. All three classic types of optical systems (Dioptric, Catoptric and Catadioptric) fill special niches, so that the optimum choice for a specific application should properly be based upon operational requirements and physical constraints. Analyses are given to show how spectral optimization influences the optical design process. Comparisons of designs from among the three types are presented.

The Model 70mm-14S camera is a new lightweight camera recently designed and manufactured by Photo-Sonics, Inc. It was specifically designed to be hand-held or hard-mounted and to produce high resolution 2-1/4 inch x 2-1/2 inch format pictures.

This paper is written for presentation at the 27th Annual International Technical Symposium and Instrument Display of the International Society for Optical Engineering, held August 21 to 26, 1983, in San Diego, California. The importance of saving of time in the image exploitation element of tactical reconnaissance is discussed, and a device that can be used for the "Automation and recording of the image interpreter's mensuration task for man-made objects" is described. Results of the application of the software are shown, and the critical aspects of accuracy and reliability are addressed for panoramic, oblique, and vertical photo imagery. Testing has demonstrated the ability to reduce task time by an order of magnitude comparable to manual methods. The image exploitation quality can be maintained and mensuration accuracy greatly improved.

Quantitative interpretation of earth surface images using conventional methods is a time-Ronsuming, expensive, and tedious task. To address this problem we developed the RMS T resource measurement system to aid people in obtaining quantitative information from images. The system utilizes computer graphics and image analysis technologies.

With the renovation of its fleet of reconnaissance aircraft, typified by the adoption of a special version of the MIRAGE Fl tactical support aircraft, the French Air Force wanted to rethink all the received reconnaissance concepts by completely renewing its: - sensors, - interpretation equipment, and by adopting advanced systems for : - mission preparation and planning, - stand-off reconnaissance, and - accelerated data access.

The evolution of an interactive automated multisensor soft copy imagery exploitation work-station is described. A brief history of synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) and predecessor equipment/systems is presented along with performance achieved during field training exercises in Central Europe to illustrate the comparative effectiveness of this generic software reconfigurable workstation. The workstation was designed to increase the rate of imagery exploitation while minimizing the personnel skill level and training required for proficiency. Characteristics include real-time screening of scrolling sensor imagery, superpositioning of cue symbols, rapid accessing of collateral data base information, and near real-time computer-assisted reporting. Frame processing enables real-time rotation, warp/dewarp, and roam. Convolution filtering permits edge enhancement and haze reduction.

Military aircraft being considered to fill the future Airborne Tactical Reconnaissance mission are equipped with the MIL-STD-1553 Digital Multiplex Bus. How is this bus different from previous interfaces? Does the bus enhance or complicate the interface of sensors to aircraft via the Sensor Control/Data Display Set (SC/DDS)? Dedicated reconnaissance aircraft like the RF-4, are fewer and far between; most new, single seat air-craft in dual role missions, use reconnaissance pallets or pods while retaining major fighter capabilities. Can the added function of sensor control and monitoring for a single pilot/controller be implemented over the bus? Which functions should be performed in the Mission Computer and which should be contained in the Remote Terminal (RT) known as the SC/DDS? Discussed herein are answers to these questions plus options and capabilities for future airborne reconnaissance design.

Data recording systems for film sensors exist in many forms from cathode ray tube (CRT) displays to complex light emitting diode (LED) arrays. Recent developments have not only eliminated the need for the CRT displays, but have greatly simplified the complex LED arrays. Additionally, electro-optical sensors with video formats often require data annotation. This paper provides an overview of some of the techniques of annotating film and video formats.

Historically, the use of video/data recorders in severe airborne environments is relatively new. Great reductions in size and weight have occured since the first early programs, and increases in functional capabilities continue. Many types of airborne video/data recorders exist today, and we have proposed a three-tiered approach to quantifying the spread of available equipment, based on its cost/capability. A review of recent developments in video/data recorder uses reveals not only new equipment, but also innova-tive applications of existing very capable equipment. Microprocessor technology has lead to several new units which are fully remote record/playback capable, including all special features; control by on-aircraft computers is now feasible, freeing the pilot's limited time for more important tasks. Many real-time or near real-time reconnaissance or surveillance tasks previously conceived can now be implemented, within reasonable budget figures, due to these new recorder developments. In addition, future operating concepts are now being discussed which promise to yield better application of previously gathered imagery.

A variety of new and improved sensors are evolving from advanced development programs. Systems such as DLIR (Downward Looking Infrared System), SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems), and the 2ND Generation FLIR IR System. The time has come to combine these and other sensor capabilities into a tactical reconnaissance operation which includes an effective real-time capability. A general approach to real-time reconnaissance is employing several airborne sensors and including both airborne and ground data management devices and procedures. Automatic (digital) data processing information will minimize the amount of irrelevant data presented to human observers. The human observer represents the final and essential filtering agent required to reduce the information rate to a level suitable for dissemination over data links for rapid (real-time) access to tactical commanders.

Electra-optic and Radar sensing reconnaissance systems have many advantages including remote transmission and image data processing that conventional film camera systems do not have. However, data storage and retrieval that was naturally and easily accomplished with film must now be accommodated by other techniques. The optical disc data storage and retrieval systems offer significant advantage towards fulfilling this need. This paper will provide an overview description of the technology, some of the fundamental alternatives of configuration approach, and some examples of where it may be considered in the reconnaissance system. Silver halide film has been and still is the work horse of the image based reconnaissance field. It will not be replaced in the near future either, but rather a gradual transition to total electronic systems is expected. It is not the intent of this paper to debase film, because in fact it has its advantages. We have learned to optimize its advantages and minimize its disadvantages. However optical disc systems have a definite role to play in the reconnaissance field.

Glass microchannel plates were originally developed for night-vision service, and have become widely used in cathode rays tubes, mass specrometers, ultraviolet spectrometers and telescopes, and in plasma diagnostics. Recent advances in microchannel plate design and manufacture now offer a plate with the image dimensions, spatial resolution, sensitivity, and response time needed in aerial reconnaissance.

A brief overview of digital signal processing for infrared linescan imagery is presented. The need for digital signal processing arises from the desire to maintain high-quality imagery throughout the processing chain from sensor through data link to real-time display. Digital processing allows simple hardware to perform complex imagery manipulations including bandwidth compression, dynamic range control and automatic target screening. Digital processing also allows a real-time CRT display to be interfaced with infrared linescanners which generate enormous instantaneous data rates. Automatic aids to imagery interpretation and the simultaneous presentation of data from other sensors are also facilitated through digital processing. Recent developments at Honeywell in these areas are presented to show how airborne reconnaissance is adapting to the needs of the immediate future.

An adaptive technique for detection of ground stationary targets in a variable clutter environment by an airborne millimeter wave radar is presented. The scheme consists of three basic units: an adaptive decorrelator, a clutter classifier, and a constant false alarm rate (CFAR) processor. Due to the inherent nature of radar returns (echoes), the signal consisting of target(S), clutter(C), and noise(N) are highly correlated. These signals are passed through a whitening matched filters combination. The selection of the parameters of whitening and matched filters is performed through an adaptive identification scheme (Kalman algorithm) using autoregressive(AR) and autoregressive-moving average(ARMA) models. The output of the matched filter is then passed through the pattern classifier unit, which determines whether the given clutter sample belongs to the Log-normal type or Weibull type statistical distribution families, and determines the appropriate detection threshold for the CFAR processor unit.

MTF and pseudo-MTF analytical techniques are applied to the problem of predicting system performance for reconnaissance sensors which incorporate Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) imaging detectors. The MTF analyses, used in conjunction with assumptions about Signal-to-Noise (S/N) requirements and a simplified weather model, provide a much-needed systems design tool.

With increased interest in the use of remotely piloted vehicles for airborne reconnaissance, there has been an increased awareness of the importance of electro-optical systems as applied to these vehicles. This interest is further heightened by technical advances in the development of applicable detectors in visual through infrared bands. Numerous types of countermeasures, as well as natural phenomena, are potentially capable of defeating these systems. Controlled laboratory and field measurements of the behavior of electro-optical systems in the presence of obscurants or active interferers represent a potentially useful technique for determining first-order effects of interferers on system operation. We discuss a facility possessing this capability which is of potential value to developers and users of remotely piloted vehicles.

Real world optical systems have optical components which are not perfectly aligned. The alignment errors degrade image quality.^1,2 The effects of expected alignment errors must be analyzed for each potential optical design to objectively evaluate its anticipated "as built" performance. The value of using optical alignment tolerancing as a figure of merit in the optical design phase of a catadioptric lens is demonstrated. The result is a high performance optical system which can be sized for hand held airborne reconnaissance or long range spaceborne reconnaissance. The effects of sizing on alignment tolerance are presented.

Electro-optical panoramic cameras utilizing the Time Delay and Integration (T.D.I.) mode of operation for the extraction of information under conditions of extremely low apparent scene contrast are characterized by long exposure timas. As a result, the control of image motion to avoid the degrading effects of smear becomes of paramount importance. Starting from the general equations of image motion, several motion compensation techniques are examined and an approach is presented which permits a high degree of correction.

Increasing attention is being focused on unmanned, airborne sensor platforms for long-endurance reconnaisance, monitoring, and communications purposes. Until recently most of this activity has been driven by military needs and applications. Preliminary performance and design analyses for such vehicles have identified enabling technologies, competing vehicle design concepts, and basic operational characteristics. As the various concepts and key technologies mature, it is apparent that applications exist in the civilian sector for this class of aircraft. In particular, fixed-wing, high-altitude powered platforms (HAPPs) capable of long-endurance flight (several days minimum) at altitudes above 18 km (59,000 ft) offer unique capabilities. Over a local or regional extent of land, a dedicated HAPP can provide frequent, if not continuous, observation cycles. Long endurance on station greatly increases the probability of obtaining cloud-free information which, as part of a continuing, near-real-time data stream, could be rapidly processed and made available to users within hours. This capability would provide an unparalleled amount of information not otherwise available. This paper describes some HAPP concepts, characterized by their propulsion modes (incorporating microwave, solar, and chemical energy sources), which may he available by the 1990's. In addition, some promising mission applications for the civilian sector are identified. An agricultural monitoring mission, described in some detail, illustrates the unique performance benefits vis-a'-vis conventional aircraft or orbiting spacecraft.