This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 10099, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction (if any), and Conference Committee listing.

State of the art InGaP2/GaAs/In0.28Ga0.72As inverted metamorphic (IMM) solar cells have achieved impressive results, however, the thick metamorphic buffer needed between the lattice matched GaAs and lattice mismatched InGaAs requires significant effort and time to grow and retains a fairly high defect density. One approach to this problem is to replace the bottom InGaAs junction with an Sb-based material such as 0.73 eV GaSb or ~1.0 eV Al0.2Ga0.8Sb. By using interfacial misfit (IMF) arrays, the high degree of strain (7.8%) between GaAs and GaSb can be relaxed solely by laterally propagating 90° misfit dislocations that are confined to the GaAs-GaSb interface layer. We have used molecular beam epitaxy to grow GaSb single junction solar cells homoepitaxially on GaSb and heteroepitaxially on GaAs using IMF. Under 15-sun AM1.5 illumination, the control cell achieved 5% efficiency with a WOC of 366 mV, while the IMF cell was able to reach 2.1% with WOC of 546 mV. Shunting and high non-radiative dark current were main cause of FF and efficiency loss in the IMF devices. Threading dislocations or point defects were the expected source behind the losses, leading to minority carrier lifetimes less than 1ns. Deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) was used to search for defects electrically and two traps were found in IMF material that were not detected in the homoepitaxial GaSb device. One of these traps had a trap density of 7 × 1015 cm-3, about one order of magnitude higher than the control cell defect at 4 × 1016 cm-3.

Here we study photovoltaic properties of GaInPNAs based quantum well and superlattice solar cells that are strain balanced or lattice matched to Si and evaluate their potential toward the development of high efficiency tandems operating in conjunction with a silicon bottom cells.

Distributed circuit models (DCM) divide photovoltaic devices into discrete elementary units. Each unit is assigned an equivalent circuit based on geometry and location, with circuit parameters being fit to or extrapolated from experimental results. Interconnection of these elementary units with ohmic resistors representing lateral and vertical resistances within the layers of the device forms the complete circuit model. DCMs allow grid design optimization, simulation of chromatic aberration, luminescent coupling and analysis of power losses due to regionally specific resistances, which are not possible with simple lumped models. Previous DCMs have been limited to 1-3 junction devices, using a 2D surface model, or use of a one-diode circuit model for the cell junctions. Furthermore, a DCM can be used to simulate complex multi-junction devices with non-uniform illumination, whereas in comprehensive physics-based simulators like Synopsys TCAD Sentaurus this would require vastly greater computational resources. In this work, a parameterized 3D distributed circuit model was developed to calculate the performance of III-V solar cells and photonic power converters (PPC) with a variable number of epitaxially stacked pn junctions. We validated these calculations against published results using a similar 3D model for a 1-junction solar cell. Furthermore, experimental results from Azastra Opto’s 20-junction PPC illuminated by an 845 nm diode laser are compared. These devices are designed with many pn junctions to achieve higher voltages and to operate under non-uniform illumination profiles from a laser or LED. The effect on device performance of varying both these parameters will be discussed.

While single-junction photovoltaics (PV's) are considered limited in conversion efficiency according to the Shockley-Queisser limit, concepts such as solar thermo-photovoltaics aim to harness lost heat and overcome this barrier. We claim the novel concept of Thermally Enhanced Photoluminescence (TEPL) as an easier route to achieve this goal. Here we present a practical TEPL device where a thermally insulated photo-luminescent (PL) absorber, acts as a mediator between a photovoltaic cell and the sun. This high temperature absorber emits blue-shifted PL at constant flux, then coupled to a high band gap PV cell. This scheme promotes PV conversion efficiencies, under ideal conditions, higher than 62% at temperatures lower than 1300K. Moreover, for a PV and absorber band-gaps of 1.45eV (GaAs PV's) and 1.1eV respectively, under practical conditions, solar concentration of 1000 suns, and moderate thermal insulation; the conversion efficiencies potentially exceed 46%. Some of these practical conditions belong to the realm of optical design; including high photon recycling (PR) and absorber external quantum efficiency (EQE). High EQE values, a product of the internal QE of the active PL materials and the extraction efficiency of each photon (determined by the absorber geometry and interfaces), have successfully been reached by experts in laser cooling technology. PR is the part of emitted low energy photons (in relation to the PV band-gap) that are reabsorbed and consequently reemitted with above band-gap energies. PV back-reflector reflectivity, also successfully achieved by those who design the cutting edge high efficiency PV cells, plays a major role here.

Simultaneously controlling both the spectral and angular emission of thermal photons can qualitatively change the nature of thermal radiation, and offers a great potential to improve a broad range of applications, including infrared light sources and thermophotovoltaic (TPV) conversion of waste heat to electricity. For TPV in particular, frequency-selective emission is necessary for spectral matching with a photovoltaic converter, while directional emission is needed to maximize the fraction of emission reaching the receiver at large separation distances. This can allow the photovoltaics to be moved outside vacuum encapsulation. In this work, we demonstrate both directionally and spectrally-selective thermal emission for p-polarization, using a combination of an epsilon-near-zero (ENZ) thin film backed by a metal reflector, a high contrast grating, and an omnidirectional mirror. Gallium-doped zinc oxide is selected as an ENZ material, with cross-over frequency in the near-infrared. The proposed structure relies on coupling guided modes (instead of plasmonic modes) to the ENZ thin film using the high contrast grating. The angular width is thus controlled by the choice of grating period. Other off-directional modes are then filtered out using the omnidirectional mirror, thus enhancing frequency selectivity. Our emitter design maintains both a high view factor and high frequency selectivity, leading to a factor of 8.85 enhancement over a typical blackbody emitter, through a combination of a 22.26% increase in view factor and a 6.88x enhancement in frequency selectivity. This calculation assumes a PV converter five widths away from the same width emitter in 2D at 1573 K.

The degradation mechanism of Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ (CIGS) solar cells on exposure to air has been investigated. Exposure to air at room temperature slightly reduces the conversion efficiency of CIGS solar cells, and the conversion efficiency decreases significantly under damp heat testing at 85 °C and 85% relative humidity due to low shunt resistance. On the other hand, shunt resistance increases after dry nitrogen heating. Therefore, oxygen and humidity should degenerate the solar cell performance. The low shunt resistance and conversion efficiency are completely recovered after removing the side edges of the CIGS solar cells by mechanical scribing. These results suggest that low-resistive layers are formed on the sidewalls of the solar cells during damp heat testing. The low-resistive layers on the sidewalls are identified to be molybdenum oxides and sodium molybdate by Auger electron spectroscopy. After etching the oxides on the sidewalls by alkaline solution, the saturation current density and ideality factor are confirmed to be improved. These results suggest that metal oxides on the sidewalls of CIGS solar cells may act as recombination centers.

Begin we have experimentally looked into the physics of low temperature (<400C) amorphous Ge crystallization using AIC favoring the formation of highly oriented large grain Ge crystals towards (110) or (100) suitable for solar cell applications. We have carefully investigated the effects of experimental parameters such as Al and Ge layers thicknesses, interfacial oxide layer (between Al and Ge layers) and annealing conditions on defining the Ge dominant orientation other than normally achieved (111). We have implemented X-Ray diffraction analysis to demonstrate the critical role of oxide layer in reducing the surface free energy. We have studied the playing role of Al thickness on tuning Ge dominant orientation and subsequently achieved (110)-oriented cubic Ge on glass, which could be particularly attractive to mitigate antiphase defect formation during the III-V heteroepitaxy. Furthermore, we show for the first time the possibility of obtaining a novel rhombohedric (100) Ge presenting a remarkable option toward tuning of the Ge lattice constant to ~0.593 nm (instead of 0.565nm ), closely matched to the lattice of InP and related materials.

A significant improvement in the quality of dilute nitrides has recently led to the ability to reveal depletion widths in excess of 1 μm at 1 eV [1]. The real viability of dilute nitrides for PV has been recently demonstrated with the reporting of a record efficiency of 43.5% from a 4J MJSC including GaInNAs(Sb) [2]. Despite the progress made, these materials remain poorly understood and work continues to improve their lifetime and reproducibility. We have investigated the possibility of improving the functionality of GaInNAs using hydrogenation to selectively passivate mid-gap defects, while preserving the substitutional nitrogen. Temperature dependent photoluminescence measurements of the intrinsic region of a GaInNAs p-i-n solar cell show a classic “s-shape” associated with localization prior to hydrogenation. No sign of this “s-shape” is evident after hydrogenation, despite the retention of substitutional nitrogen as evidenced by the band absorption of 1 eV. The absence of an “s-shape” at low-temperature in hydrogenated GaInNAs is rather curious since, even in high quality nitrides this behavior is due to the emission of isoelectronic centers created via N-As substitution [3]. The potential origins of this behavior will be discussed. The promise of this process for GaInNAs solar cells was demonstrated by a three-fold improvement in the performance of a hydrogenated device with respect to an as-grown reference [4]. [1] “Wide-depletion width GaInNAs solar cells by thermal annealing,” I. R. Sellers, W-S. Tan, K. Smith, S. Hooper, S. Day and M. Kauer, Applied Physics Letters 99, 151111 (2011) [2] “43.5% efficient lattice matched solar cells,” M. Wiemer, V. Sabnis, and H. Yuen, Proc. SPIE 8108, 810804 (2011) [3]“Probing the nature of carrier localization in GaInNAs, epilayers using optical methods,” T. Ysai, B. Barman, T. Scarce, G. Lindberg, M. Fukuda, V. R. Whiteside, J. C. Keay, M. B. Johnson, I. R. Sellers, M. Al Khalfioui, M. Leroux, B. A. Weinstein and A. Petrou. Applied Physics Letters 103, 012104 (2013) [4] “Improved performance in GaInNAs solar cells by hydrogen passivation by hydrogen passivation,” M. Fukuda, V. R. Whiteside, J. C. Keay, A. Meleco, I. R. Sellers, K. Hossain, T. D. Golding, M. Leroux, and M. Al Khalfioui, Applied Physics Letters 106, 141904 (2015)

We have reported that a novel quantum structure which we term quantum well island (QWI), a few monolayer thick and sub-micron wide structure, is effective in confining the carriers and enhancing multi-exciton interactions. By embedding InAs-based QWIs in AlGaAs barrier layers, we demonstrated that upconverted photoluminescence (PL) in the visible regime can be obtained by impinging near infrared (IR) photons, which may potentially be applied for intermediate band (IB) solar cells [1]. Further investigation has revealed that the dominant upconversion mechanism is most likely Auger, while two-step excitation may also take place under selected conditions [2]. The upconverted carriers generated by IR irradiation may also be detected as photocurrents. Through a series of studies using this structure, we note the importance of the carrier trapping involved during the upconversion processes. For instance, multiple laser-beam excitation measurements have shown that trapping and re-trapping processes reduce the photocurrents [3]. However, recently, using a structure that consists of InAs quantum dots embedded in InAs/GaAs multi-quantum wells (MQWs), we find that efficient carrier trapping can enhance upconverted PL [4]. We show the preparation and the control of this structure by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), and the possible mechanisms of the upconversion. We also discuss how the conversion efficiency may be improved using device structures based on this concept. [1] D. M. Tex and I. Kamiya, Phys. Rev. B 83 (2011) 081309. [2] D. M. Tex, I. Kamiya, and Y. Kanemitsu, Sci. Rep. 4 (2014) 4125. [3] D. M. Tex, T. Ihara, I. Kamiya, and Y. Kanemitsu, to be published. [4] Y. Zhang and I. Kamiya, JSAP Spring Meeting, 2016.

In this work, the effect of Si doping on InAs/GaAs quantum dot solar cells with AlAs cap layers is studied. The AlAs cap layers suppress the formation of the wetting layer during quantum dot growth. This helps achieve quantum dot state filling, which is one of the requirements for strong sub-bandgap photon absorption in the quantum dot intermediate band solar cell, at lower Si doping density. Furthermore, the passivation of defect states in the quantum dots with moderate Si doping is demonstrated, which leads to an enhancement of the carrier lifetime in the quantum dots, and hence the open-circuit voltage.

The subband features E_‒ and E₊ for the conduction band of III-V dilute nitride alloys make them promising for intermediate band solar cell application. However, presence of bandgap states can limit the two-step photon absorption activity, a necessary requirement for IBSC functionality. A model analysis is performed to characterize the density of states. The sub-band tails states are characterized using a temperature-dependent map of photo-modulated reflectance spectroscopy for GaNAs thin films grown on GaAs substrates using molecular beam epitaxy. The effect of indium and antimony incorporation on the subband features were investigated. Marked improvements in the thin films were observed both for the lower (E_‒) and the upper (E+) conduction bands (CB) when In was introduced with marginal enhancement by Sb. These improvements are associated with suppression of tail states below both the E_‒ and E₊ bands. Sb rather mainly plays a surfactant role improving the abruptness of the GaNAs/GaAs hetero-interface.

The Hot Carrier solar cell has the potential to yield a very high efficiency, well over 50% under 1 sun. Multiple quantum wells have been shown to have significantly slow hot carrier cooling rates than bulk material and are thus a promising candidate for hot carrier solar cell absorbers. However, the mechanism(s) by which hot carrier cooling is restricted is not clear. In this paper is presented a systematic study of carrier cooling rates in GaAs/AlAs MQW with either varying barrier or varying well thickness. These allow an investigation as to whether the mechanisms of either a reduction in hot carrier diffusion; a localisation of phonons emitted by hot carriers; or mini-gaps in the MQW phonon dispersion are primarily responsible for reduced carrier cooling rates. With the conclusion that the interfaces between QW and barrier are primarily responsible for reducing carrier cooling rates through a mechanism of phonon confinement leading to phonon bottleneck restriction of phonon decay and hence re-heating of hot carriers. Some aspects of the consequent affect on the use of MQW as absorbers in a real hot carrier cell are discussed.

We report on the opto-electrical characterization of quantum-well solar cells designed for generation of hot carriers. Short-circuit current is proportional to laser power in the entire range. Population density, temperature and quasi-Fermi level splitting of photo-generated confined carriers are investigated by fitting the full luminescence spectra using generalized Planck’s law. The energy-dependent absorptivity is identified to obtain good fit accuracy and takes into account the absorption of excitons and free carriers in the quantum well. Furthermore, electrical injection and extraction across the barriers modify the temperature of the quantum well carrier population linearly, hinting at the role of barriers as semi-selective high-energy contact.

Double resonant tunneling barriers are considered for an application as energy selective contacts in hot carrier solar cells. Experimental symmetric and asymmetric double resonant tunneling barriers are realized by molecular beam epitaxy and characterized by temperature dependent current-voltage measurements. The negative differential resistance signal is enhanced for asymmetric heterostructures, and remains unchanged between low- and room-temperatures. Within Tsu-Esaki description of the tunnel current, this observation can be explained by the voltage dependence of the tunnel transmission amplitude, which presents a resonance under finite bias for asymmetric structures. This effect is notably discussed with respect to series resistance. Different parameters related to the electronic transmission of the structure and the influence of these parameters on the current voltage characteristic are investigated, bringing insights on critical processes to optimize in double resonant tunneling barriers applied to hot carrier solar cells.

Both CdTe and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 have produced highly efficient thin film solar cells, exceeding 22% in champion devices. Both are also manufactured in large scales and show promise as future energy technologies. However, understanding the current collection mechanisms and mechanisms of instability in the devices remain a concern. To address these questions, we have used scanning probe and photoemission spectroscopies to study the response of chalcogenide materials to light and how charge is collected. Results of scanning microwave impedance microscopy and conductive atomic force microscopy show dramatic differences in the behavior of CdTe and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS). The results include characterization of the effect of CdCl2 treatment on the properties CdTe grains and grain boundaries. This treatment dramatically increases the current collection in the grain boundaries. Thus we show that CdTe solar cells operate apparently by generation of electron hole pairs in the CdTe grains and collection of electrons to the grain boundaries. By contrast, CIGS grains show little or no contrast between the grains and grain boundaries and no obvious conduction pathway through the grain boundaries appears to exist. Our surface analysis results are supplemented with other measurements of both surface and bulk microchemistry and microstructure.

Absorption of light inevitably leads to a self-heating of each type of solar cell, either due to the excess energy of absorbed photons or non-radiative recombination of charge carriers. Although the effect of temperature on solar cell parameters such as the open-circuit voltage are well known, it is often ignored in Suns-Voc measurements [1]. This measurement technique enables direct access to the diode ideality factor without an influence by series resistance. A frequently seen decrease of the ideality factor or a saturation of the open-circuit voltage at high illumination intensities is often attributed solely to surface recombination [2], the shape of the density of states (DOS) [3], or the quality of the back contact in inorganic solar cells [4]. In this work, we present an analytical model for taking into account absorption induced self-heating in Suns-Voc measurements and validate it for various solar cell technologies such as small molecule organic solar cells, perovskite solar cells, and inorganic solar cells. Furthermore, with an adapted Suns-Voc technique, we are able to not only correctly determine the ideality factor, but also the relevant energy gap of the solar cell, which is especially of interest in the field of novel solar cell technologies. [1] R.A. Sinton and A. Cuevas, EU PVSEC, 1152-1155 (2000) [2] K. Tvingstedt and C. Deibel, Adv. Energy Mater. 6, 1502230 (2016) [3] T. Kirchartz and J. Nelson, Phys. Rev. B 86, 165201 (2012) [4] S. Glunz, J. Nekarda, H. Maeckel et al., EU PVSEC, 849-853 (2007)

Geometrically designed III-V nanowire arrays are promising candidates for optoelectronics due to their possibility to excite nanophotonic resonances in absorption spectra. Strong absorption resonances can be obtained by proper tailoring of nanowire diameter, length and pitch. Such enhancement of the light absorption is, however, accompanied by undesired resonance dips at specific wavelengths. In this work, we theoretically show that tilting of the nanowires mitigates the absorption dips by exciting strong Mie resonances. In particular, we derive a theoretical optimum inclination angle of about 30° at which the inclined nanowires gain 8% in absorption efficiency compared to vertically standing nanowires in a spectral region matching the intensity distribution of the sun. The enhancement is due to engineering the excited modes inside the nanowires regarding the symmetry properties of the nanowire/light system without increasing the absorbing material. We expect our results to be important for nanowire-based photovoltaic applications.

Publisher’s Note: This conference presentation, originally published on 24 April 2017, was withdrawn per author request.

The quantum dot solar concentrator optical efficiency is undermined by the parameters of re-absorption, scattering, and escape cone losses. These losses can be address through enhancing quantum dot (QDs) absorption and emission. This have been achieved through plasmonic coupling between QDs and gold nanoparticles (Au NPs). The plasmonic composite of various concertation of QDs and Au NPs were studied. The spacing between QDs and Au NPs is controlled through concentration distribution of both QD and Au NPs in the plasmonic composite, and it showed a significant increase in absorption and which is more pronounced for higher spectral overlap of QDs and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) frequency. The optimum plasmonic coupling showed a 17 % increase in the fluorescence emission for QDs in plasmonic composite. The results have shown significant enhancement in absorption, fluorescence emission for the p-QDSC.

The photovoltaic reciprocity theory relates the electroluminescence spectrum of a solar cell under applied bias to the external photovoltaic quantum efficiency of the device as measured at short circuit conditions [1]. So far, the theory has been verified for a wide range of devices and material systems and forms the basis of a growing number of luminesecence imaging techniques used in the characterization of photovoltaic materials, cells and modules [2–5]. However, there are also some examples where the theory fails, such as in the case of amorphous silicon. In our contribution, we critically assess the assumptions made in the derivation of the theory and compare its predictions with rigorous formal relations as well as numerical computations in the framework of a comprehensive quantum-kinetic theory of photovoltaics [6] as applied to ultra-thin absorber architectures [7]. One of the main applications of the photovoltaic reciprocity relation is the determination of quasi-Fermi level splittings (QFLS) in solar cells from the measurement of luminescence. In nanostructure-based photovoltaic architectures, the determination of QFLS is challenging, but instrumental to assess the performance potential of the concepts. Here, we use our quasi-Fermi level-free theory to investigate existence and size of QFLS in quantum well and quantum dot solar cells. [1] Uwe Rau. Reciprocity relation between photovoltaic quantum efficiency and electrolumines- cent emission of solar cells. Phys. Rev. B, 76(8):085303, 2007. [2] Thomas Kirchartz and Uwe Rau. Electroluminescence analysis of high efficiency cu(in,ga)se2 solar cells. J. Appl. Phys., 102(10), 2007. [3] Thomas Kirchartz, Uwe Rau, Martin Hermle, Andreas W. Bett, Anke Helbig, and Jrgen H. Werner. Internal voltages in GaInP-GaInAs-Ge multijunction solar cells determined by electro- luminescence measurements. Appl. Phys. Lett., 92(12), 2008. [4] Thomas Kirchartz, Anke Helbig, Wilfried Reetz, Michael Reuter, Jürgen H. Werner, and Uwe Rau. Reciprocity between electroluminescence and quantum efficiency used for the characterization of silicon solar cells. Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., 17(6):394–402, 2009. [5] U. Hoyer, M. Wagner, Th. Swonke, J. Bachmann, R. Auer, A. Osvet, and C. J. Brabec. Electroluminescence imaging of organic photovoltaic modules. Appl. Phys. Lett., 97(23), 2010. [6] U. Aeberhard. Theory and simulation of quantum photovoltaic devices based on the non-equilibrium Greens function formalism. J. Comput. Electron., 10:394–413, 2011. [7] U. Aeberhard. Simulation of ultrathin solar cells beyond the limits of the semiclassical bulk picture. IEEE J. Photovolt., 6(3):654–660, 2016.

In photovoltaic, multi quantum wells (MQW) allow to tailor the optical absorption. This is particularly interesting in multijunction solar cells [1] but it also permits to improve the efficiency of a single junction solar cell [2]. This approach is efficient thanks to the strain-balanced materials which, at a well under compressive strain, associates a barrier under tensile strain. This permits to consider a large number of wells while preventing the formation of dislocations during crystal growth. On the other hand, the use of barriers is a drawback for the collection of the photo-generated carriers and more generally for the electronic transport quality in the MQW. Indeed, since transport is a succession of thermal escape, assisted tunnel escape and, at best, direct tunneling across a barrier, the average carrier velocity is low (of about 104 cm s-1) [3]. Finally the recombination rate is large and impacts both open-circuit voltage and shortcircuit current. Furthermore, thanks to barriers some minibands can occur [4]. The wave functions of carriers in minibands are Bloch waves, meaning that propagation is efficient. Our theoretical study, based on quantum simulation (Green functions formalism) in InGaAs/GaAs/GaAsP cells, sheds light on minibands in which the average velocity of carriers is around 10⁷ cm s^-1. However, we also show that, without an adapted design, such minibands are inefficient since they connect only a few wells. We will present some improvements related to the distance between barriers and the positioning of the MQW inside the cell.

In view of the combinatorial approach to discovery of new thermoelectric materials, it is highly desirable to have fast measurement techniques, if possible with capabilities to access local fluctuations or gradients in material properties. Using the generalized Planck& #39;s law of radiation [1] for fitting the photoluminescence spectra is the most appropriate technique to access the quasi Fermi level splitting and the temperature of the carriers in a semiconductor. These two parameters enable to determine Seebeck coefficients for the material as a new photo-Seebeck effect [2]. The absolutely calibrated photoluminescence intensity profile[3] with the spatial coordinates combined with Callen coupled transport equations and with the kinetic expression of the transport parameters under the relaxation time approximation enable us to determine: the Seebeck coefficient, the electrical conductivity, the thermal electron and hole conductivity, the mobilities, the diffusion coefficients and the heat transferred from the carriers to the lattice. All these parameters can be obtained either for electrons or for holes[4], even simultaneously, for intrinsic semiconductor in ambipolar regime. The method has been applied to a multi-quantum well structure of InGaAsP. Since the luminescence comes from the wells, this method enables to access the transport properties in the plane of the wells inside the whole structure. Since photoluminescence does not require p-n junction nor high electrical conductivities for the measurement, this optical contactless measurement technique of thermoelectrinc transport parameters involving quasi-equilibrium carriers enables to access properties inside a given layer of the whole structure or in materials with very low conductivities. We will also show the perspectives offered for the research of new thermoelectric materials. [1] Würfel, J. Phys. C : Solid State Phys., 1982 [2] Gibelli et al., Phys. Rev. Appl., 5 (2) 2016 Tauc, Czech J Phys, 1955 [3] Delamarre, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2012 [4] Gibelli et al., Physica B, October 2016

Multijunction solar cells are currently the devices offering the largest conversion efficiencies of the solar radiation, which could be further increased by limiting their series resistances. A clear evaluation of the impact of those resistances is therefore required, and provided in this paper by introducing a mapping method of the current transport efficiency from luminescence images. This method brings finer information on the cell than electroluminescence methods, widely used so far for multi-junction cells, and offers much faster acquisition time than what could be obtained with a light beam induced current setup. While it has been theoretically and experimentally developed for single junction solar cells, its application to multijunction cells remains to be demonstrated. The purpose of this communication is to assess its validity and to explain some results that can be counterintuitive at a first sight. Two different triple-junction architectures are investigated and successfully compared with electrical measurements and calculations.

Colloidal quantum dot (CQD) solar cells have been under the spotlight in recent years mainly due to their potential for low-cost solution-processed fabrication and efficient light harvesting through multiple exciton generation (MEG) and tunable absorption spectrum via the quantum size effect. Despite the impressive advances achieved in charge carrier mobility of quantum dot solids and the cells’ light trapping capabilities, the recent progress in CQD solar cell efficiencies has been slow, leaving them behind other competing solar cell technologies. In this work, using comprehensive optoelectronic modeling and simulation, we demonstrate the presence of a strong efficiency loss mechanism, here called the “efficiency black hole”, that can significantly hold back the improvements achieved by any efficiency enhancement strategy. We prove that this efficiency black hole is the result of sole focus on enhancement of either light absorption or charge extraction capabilities of CQD solar cells. This means that for a given thickness of CQD layer, improvements accomplished exclusively in optic or electronic aspect of CQD solar cells do not necessarily translate into tangible enhancement in their efficiency. The results suggest that in order for CQD solar cells to come out of the mentioned black hole, incorporation of an effective light trapping strategy and a high quality CQD film at the same time is an essential necessity. Using the developed optoelectronic model, the requirements for this incorporation approach and the expected efficiencies after its implementation are predicted as a roadmap for CQD solar cell research community.

Increasing efforts on the photovoltaics research have recently been devoted to material savings, leading to the emergence of new designs based on nanotextured and nanowire-based solar cells. The use of small absorber volumes, light-trapping nanostructures and unconventional carrier collection schemes (radial nanowire junctions, point contacts in planar structures,…) increases the impact of surfaces recombination and induces homogeneity in the photogenerated carrier concentrations. The investigation of their impacts on the device performances need to be addressed using full 3D coupled opto-electrical modeling. In this context, we have developed a new tool for full 3D opto-electrical simulation using the most advanced optical and electrical simulation techniques. We will present an overview of its simulation capabilities and the key issues that have been solved to make it fully operational and reliable. We will provide various examples of opto-electronic simulation of (i) nanostructured solar cells with localized contacts and (ii) nanowire solar cells. We will also show how opto-electronic simulation can be used to simulate light- and electron-beam induced current (LBIC/EBIC) experiments, targeting quantitative analysis of the passivation properties of surfaces.

The efficiencies of thin film amorphous silicon (a-Si) solar cells are restricted by the small thickness required for efficient carrier collection. This thickness limitations result in poor light absorption. In this work, broadband absorption enhancement is theoretically achieved in a-Si solar cells by using nanostructured back electrode along with surface texturing. The back electrode is formed of Au nanogratings and the surface texturing consists of Si nanocones. The results were then compared to random texturing surfaces. Three dimensional finite difference time domain (FDTD) simulations are used to design and optimize the structure. The Au nanogratings achieved absorption enhancement in the long wavelengths due to sunlight coupling to surface plasmon polaritons (SPP) modes. High absorption enhancement was achieved at short wavelengths due to the decreased reflection and enhanced scattering inside the a-Si absorbing layer. Optimizations have been performed to obtain the optimal geometrical parameters for both the nanogratings and the periodic texturing. In addition, an enhancement factor (i.e. absorbed power in nanostructured device/absorbed power in reference device) was calculated to evaluate the enhancement obtained due to the incorporation of each nanostructure.

Although solar cells can meet the increasing demand for energy of modern world, their usage is not as widespread as expected because of their high production cost and low efficiency. Thin-film and ultra-thin-film solar cells with single and multiple active layers are being investigated to reduce cost. Additionally, multiple active layers of different energy bandgaps are used in tandem in order to absorb the solar spectra more efficiently. However, the efficiency of ultra-thin-film tandem solar cells may suffer significantly mainly because of low photon absorption and current mismatch between active layers. In this work, we study the effects of intermediate plasmonic structures on the performance of ultra-thin-film tandem solar cells. We consider three structures| each with a top amorphous silicon layer and a bottom micro-crystalline silicon layer, and an intermediate plasmonic layer between them. The intermediate layer is either a metal layer with periodic holes or periodic metal strips or periodic metal nano-clusters. Using a finite difference time domain technique for incident AM 1.5 solar spectra, we show that these intermediate layers help to excite different plasmonic and photonic modes for different light polarizations, and thereby, increase the absorption of light significantly. We find that the short-circuit current density increases by ~12%, ~6%, and ~9% when the intermediate plasmonic structure is a metal hole-array, strips, and nano-clusters, respectively, from that of a structure that does not have the intermediate plasmonic layer.

Solar spectrum management using up/down conversion is an important method to improve the photovoltaic energy conversion efficiency. It asks for a monochromatic luminescence absorption at the band edge of the photovoltaic device to reduce both the sub-band-gap and over-band-gap energy losses. Here, we demonstrate an energy selective optical contacting concept to improve the luminescence transfer efficiency for spectrum management. By increasing both the luminescence emission and re-absorption ability through photonic resonance, an efficient photon transfer channel could be established between the luminescence emitter and the photovoltaic component in a near-field region. This concept is not only able to compensate the insufficient band edge absorption ability of the photovoltaic device, but also to break the far-field limitation of luminescence radiation. The energy selection on the optical spectrum naturally imposed by the mode resonance is also helpful to improve the monochromaticity of the luminescence yield. In this paper, a photonic crystal cavity is used to realize the optical contacting concept between a thin silicon film and spectrum converter. The optical power and photon flux transferred between different components are calculated analytically using the electromagnetic Green’s function. The corresponding radiative dipole moment is estimated by the fluctuation-dissipation theorem. The example shows an over 80 times enhancement in the luminescence absorbance by the silicon layer, illustrating the great potential of this concept to be applied on nano-structured photovoltaic devices.

One of the key issues limiting the efficiency of organic solar cells is the narrow absorption band of the polymer active layer. Thus, a huge amount of the incident sunlight is lost. Here, a new structure is theoretically proposed achieving wide band absorption in organic solar cells using multifunctional TiN nanowires. In addition to the plasmonic properties of TiN, it was reported that TiN has the capability to produce free carriers upon light absorption. Thus, the structure is based on the ability to collect these photo-generated carriers.

Using the combination of TiN and polymer significantly broadened the absorption band due to the ability of TiN to localize light inside P3HT:PC₇₀BM in addition to its ability to absorb light at longer wavelengths. The optimized structure enhanced the absorbed power by 95% and the optimal short circuit current by 123% over the same structure without the TiN nanowires. Electric field distribution is studied at different wavelengths to gain further insight on the localization of light inside the structure.

In this paper, concentrating structures of plasmonic luminescent downshifting composite layers (c-pLDS) containing lumogen yellow dye and silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) to increase the efficiency of Photovoltaic (PV) devices were investigated. The c-pLDS structures allowed for a wider absorption range of both wavelength shifting and light concentration with a strong energy transfer that red shifts photons to wavelengths which gives greater spectral response of solar cells. The optimum dye concentration in a poly(methyl,methacrylate) polymer of a thin layer ~10μm spin coated on glass substrate was established. Subsequently, plasmonic coupling with Ag NPs was introduced for the c-pLDS composite structures. Plasmonic coupling has been observed to produce fluorescence emission enhancement of up to 20% for the dye c-pLDS layer. The c-pLDS layer was modelled for CdTe mini modules (15x15 cm) and compared with a blank PMMA/GLASS and dye c-LDS structure. It has been demonstrated that the addition of c-pLDS layers containing lumogen yellow dye increases the optical efficiency and the Short circuit current (Jsc) of CdTe solar cells. An increase of 7.3% in the optical efficiency has been achieved and a 30% in the J_sc was obtained when a c-pLDS composite layer is used.

We demonstrate super absorbing metal-insulator-metal (MIM) stacks and MIMIM photosensitive devices operating at visible and near-infrared (VIS-NIR) spectrum, where absorbing (top) MIM and photocollecting (bottom) MIM can be optimized separately. We investigate different bottom metals in absorbing MIM with nanoparticles realized by dewetting of silver thin film on top. While gold and silver have conventionally been considered the most appropriate plasmonic absorbers, we demonstrate different absorbing metals like aluminum and specifically chromium, with its plasma frequency happening at 850 nm, as more efficient layers for absorption. Absorption in chromium hits 82 percent around 1000 nm. We provide convincing evidences by doing reflection experiment and computational simulations for absorbing MIM part. We also suggest for the first time investigating electric loss tangent of metal or coherently, surface plasmon quality factor of absorbing metals which are reliable tools for engineering different metal layers. They reveal that despite the fact that gold and silver are good plasmonic scatterers in VIS-NIR and reliable absorbers in VIS region, they are not proper choices as absorbers for NIR applications. Once the most optimum absorbing design is pointed out, we integrate it on top of another metal-insulator to form an MIMIM photodetector with tunneling photocurrent path. The final optimized sample consisting of silver – hafnium oxide – chromium – aluminum oxide – silver nanoparticles (from bottom to top) has a dark current of 7nA and a photoresponsivity peak of 0.962 mA/W at 1000 nm and a full width at half maximum of 300 nm, while applied bias is 50 mV and device areas are 300 μm x 600 μm. This photoresponse shows 70 times enhancement compared to former reported spin coated rare nanoparticle MIMIMs.

Three dimensional optical simulations are performed to assess the design requirements for obtaining highly efficient tapered Si nanowires (TSiNWs)/polymer hybrid solar cells. To avoid the complex fabrication processes of Si p-n junctions, the TSiNWs are coated with a conductive polymer forming a large junction area between both materials and making the charge separation more efficient. The addition of PEDOT:PSS has been reported previously where the absorption occur in the Si only. P3HT:PCBM has been also used on top of Si nanostructures to enhance the absorption. However, the maximum absorption of P3HT and Si are in the same range resulting in competence between the absorption of each material. Thus, thick Si substrates are still needed to achieve decent absorption in these devices. We report a broadband absorption spanning the whole visible and near infra-red range of the solar spectrum with only 5 Microns TSiNWs coated with a low band gap polymer. The tapered structure provides efficient light trapping for the incident light enhancing the absorption in the short wavelengths. The addition of the low band gap polymer (pBBTDPP2:PCBM) significantly enhanced the absorption at long wavelengths (700-900nm). Thus, broadband absorption is attained without the need of thick Si substrates. Full 3D optical simulations were performed to optimize the polymer thickness and compare between the enhancements in absorption for different polymers.

This work investigates the performance of an intermediate band solar cell (IBSC) structure based on InGaAs/GaAs lateral quantum wires under elevated temperature. Un-optimized structures using the same quantum wire based IB material have demonstrated an increase in solar conversion efficiency in comparison with reference GaAs P-I-N diode devices. In order to further understand the physics behind this increase, an optimized structure was developed and characterized. The External Quantum Efficiencies (EQE) of doped and Un-doped samples have been measured using these optimized designs. We present here the results of varying both applied bias and temperature on the EQE of these IBSC devices to highlight the advantages of such a structure.

Natural pigmentations of Ardisia, Bawang Sabrang, Harum Manis mango, Oxalis Triangularis and Rosella were used to study the general trend in performance of dyes as a photosensitizer in the application of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) based on optical light absorbance and photoelectrochemical characteristics. From the Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrophotometer with the recorded absorption measurements in the range between 400 nm to 800 nm, the dyes extracted from Rosella and Oxalis Triangularis in water solvent exhibited the conversion efficiency up to 0.68% and 0.67%, respectively. The light absorbance peak for dye extracted from Ardisia, Bawang Sabrang, Oxalis Triangularis and Rosella in water and ethanol solvent resulted in the range between 500 nm to 650 nm, while the Harum Manis mango resulted in the broader spectra in both water and ethanol solvent. The light absorbance spectra of each the dyes shows shifted wavelength spectrum when the extracted dye is adsorbed onto TiO₂ film surface that might influenced the absorption of light by TiO₂ particle in the visible region. The capabilities of the dyes to absorb light when bonded onto the TiO₂ photoanode was found to be significant with the current-voltage conversion of the cell. The results demonstrates just the tip of the vastness of natural dyes’ (native to tropical region) feasibility and applicability as a photosensitizer.

Natural organic dyes contain pigments which when safely extracted from plants have the potential to be used as a sensitizer while promising a low-cost fabrication, environmental friendly dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Ardisia, Bawang Sabrang, Harum Manis mango, Oxalis Triangularis and Rosella showed different absorption peaks when the extraction process were carried out at different temperatures. Hence, these were used as the basis to determine the conversion efficiency against the dyes extracting temperature. In this study, all dyes extracted in water have shown the best performance at a temperature of 100°C except for Harum Manis mango, while in ethanol, the optimum temperature was obtained between the room temperature, 25°C and 50°C. The absorption spectrum in water showed a broader absorption wavelength vis-à-vis ethanol solvent that resulted in the absorption peak for Ardisia, Harum Manis mango and Rosella between 450 nm and 550 nm. The highest conversion efficiency is observed to be achieved by Oxalis Triangularis extracted in water solution at 100°C, which was approximately 0.96% which corresponds to the broader absorbance trends in the literature. Thus, the optimum condition for extracting temperature for dyes in water and ethanol is room temperature and boiling points of water. Hence, Ardisia, Bawang Sabrang, Harum Manis mango, Oxalis Triangularis and Rosella can be an as alternative source for photosensitizer, and the impacts of temperature upon the light absorbance can be further investigated to produce the ultimate natural dye based solar cells.