Copper has been studied for Ultra-Large-Scale-Integration (ULSI) interconnect technology. A copper metalization system is proposed which includes both conducting and insulating barrier metals. Copper lines with minimum dimension of 100 nm were fabricated by electroless copper deposition. An alkaline-free deposition solution has been studied in addition to the conventional NaOH based solution. Two techniques have been developed to produce copper nanolines. The first method produced smooth non-planar copper lines with vertical sidewalls. Aspect ratios (height/width) as high as 3:1 have been obtained. The second fabrication technique formed a planar topography in which the copper is fully buried in an interlevel dielectric. Copper lines fabricated by both methods have been characterized by SEM. Problems unique to selective copper deposition are presented and discussed.

We outline the interrelationships between the various major subsystems of an apparatus being developed in the USA for in vivo surgical recontouring of the human cornea to correct refractive errors and/or to remove damaged tissue. We then discuss five significant optical engineering problems that had to be solved during the design of this apparatus in order for the overall system to function properly.

The mechanism of photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves, as a primary step, damage either directly to the tumor cells or to the surrounding vasculature which, in turn, causes disruption of tumor blood flow and, ultimately, tissue necrosis by anoxia. We report here a novel in-vivo model for investigating vascular events during PDT. The chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model was chosen since it is an established model for studying biological processes such as implantation and angiogenesis . The photosensitizers meso-tetraphenylporphine tetrasulfonate (TPPSJ and chloro-aluminum phthalocyanine tetrasulfonate (CAPcS) were topically applied onto the CAM. In all cases where sensitizer plus radiation was administered, changes in the CAM microcirculation occurred, as viewed through a stereoscopic microscope. With increasing light/drug dose we observed capillary leakage, stasis, occlusion, hemorrhage, and engorgement. The course of damage formation was documented in real time by video photography. All controls (sensitizer alone or light alone) remained unchanged compared to treated CAM. This work also describes preliminary experiments on tumor cells transplanted onto the CAM.

An algorithm based on circular harmonic expansion has been incorporated into a pattern recognition system using spatially incoherent light. In this algorithm the model used for recording the necessary recognition filter is derived from the absolute value of one of the circular harmonic components of the desired pattern so that both rotation and shift invariances are obtained. Computer simulations reveal that the algorithm can indeed provide adequate peak to background ratios regardless of the input rotation and lateral shift. The details of the algorithm along with results of computer simulations are presented.

Present and more so future FLIR and Imaging Seeker systems exhibit high performance and sensitivity in the order of O.04C and are widely used in field environments. This requires more rigorous testing at a realistic environment, still achieving high accuracies. As a result of these requirements, various factors gain significance as influential to the credibility and understanding of the FLIR testing in the field, the depot and even in the production. The following paper will outline some of the important factors that should be taken into consideration when performing FLIR testing especially MRTD. Not all have a similar contribution to inaccuracies, but all should be evaluated when deciding on test methods and equipment, and during test results evaluation.

The effect of dynamically changing visibility conditions on target acquisition is considered. A model is described which takes as input the statistical characterization of the obscurant and the physical characteristics of the target; the output is the probability of detection as a function of time. Analysis indicates that the variation of the obscurant as a function of time greatly effects the predicted target detection times and, hence, the utility of the infrared system in realistic scenarios.

A series of side chain liquid crystal co-polymers is prepared, starting from monomers containing both mesogenic and hyperpolarizable groups. When thin films of these polymers are poled by an electric field in the plane of the film, they exhibit optical nonlinearity both parallel and perpendicular to the direction of the poling field.

For some 3 years, Ophir Optronics has been producing diamond like carbon (DLC) coatings on germanium substrates. These coatings are very adherent and durable and have transmission and durability properties.

Infrared transparent conductive coatings were developed for ZnS substrates. The conductive layer was an indium oxide film deposited in a reactive atmosphere consisting of low energy oxygen ions. Activation of the gas molecules was performed by an ion source of the hollow cathode type. The deposited films were characterized by their transparency, conductivity and environmental durability. It was found that the positioning of the ion source relative to the substrates was critical for the film properties. High transmission and low sheet resistance of the film were obtained by optimization of the evaporation parameters which included oxygen pressure, cathode current, deposition rate, film thickness and substrate temperature. Application of the conductive film for both 3-5jim and 8-12im infrared atmospheric windows was possible. The transmission of the indium oxide film depend on the infrared free carriers absorption and the reflections at the substrate and air interfaces. Improvement of the optical performance was accomplished by depositing antireflective and induced transmission dielectric stacks. Several dielectric stacks were designed and matched to indium oxide layers of 50Q/sq and 30Q/sq sheet resistance for maximum transmission, either at a single wavelength or for a wide band in the 3-5pm and 8-11.5pm spectral regions. Typical average transmittance values of ZnS substrates coated with conductive stacks were 82% and 7L% in the 3-5pm region and 77% and 63% in the 8-'l2pm region for sheet resistances of 50Q/sq and 30Q/sq, respectively. At 1O.5pm peak transmittance values higher than 80% were obtained. The coatings were durable and passed adhesion, humidity and moderate abrasion tests in accordance with MIL-C--675C.

We present an optimization procedure for the horizontal instantaneous field of view (HIFOV) and the electronic transfer function (ETF) of scanning IR system detecting a point target that takes into account the blur of the image and the noise power spectrum of the detector. A concrete numerical example is worked out.

We develope thin-film Ni-NiO-Ni tunneling diodes with a minimum contact area of 0. 1 2 im2 and a width of the antenna arm of 0.35 jim. With these diodes we detect cw as well as pulsed 10 pm CO2-laser radiation.

We present a novel aspheric holographic optical element (hOE), having an extended depth of focus while keeping high lateral resolution. The phase function of the HOE is derived, and computer simulations verify the theoretical prediction for the optical performances.

A quadratic phase holographic lens can perform Fourier transformation on a two-dimensional input, but the transform is multiplied by a detrimental parasitic phase that is caused by the off-axis configuration. Fortunately, with the proper geometry, and for a limited spatial frequency, this parasitic phase can be considered as a constant, so it need not affect the Fourier transformation. We show how to set the frequency dependence ofthe parasitic phase in order to handle inputs with different spectrum characteristics, and how to choose the geometrical parameters of the system in an optimal way.

Fabrication techniques are described for developing and subsequent producing of an off-axis parabolic reflector and a beam expander at a reasonable cost. Through this work different materials were investigated concerning performance and manufacturing costs, especially the cost advantage, which outweigh the handling disadvantages of the plastics which were chosen as the optical material.

Laser performance degradation occurs in solar pumped solid state lasers due to thermal effects in the active medium. We demonstrated improvement of the beam quality by reduction of the operating temperatures, as well as the use of phase conjugation to eliminate the induced beam distortions.

Weapons delivery systems frequently use laser designators which require boresighting with the visual line of sight. For systems based on the Nd .YAG laser (A = 1 . O6jnrt) , this may be achieved by a boresight collimator with a second harmonic generating crystal in its focal plane which reradiates collimated, visible light (A 0 . 53/nfl) . The conception, design and testing of such a device will be described along with a comparison with alternative technologies which demonstrates its superiority in terms of conversion efficiency, damage threshold and design versatility.

A bearnsplitting assembly that divides a single visible beam into three channels was designed, developed and produced. Each channel receives a spectrally balanced beam with equal intensity and color differences. The spectral and intensity balancing was achieved by application of two neutral bearrisplitters at 4S angle of incidence and a third surface with a total internal reflection (TIR). A simple method to design neutral dielectric bearnsplitters is shown and the design considerations are described. This bearrisplitter is particularly suitable for dividing a single beam into biocular observation in the case where the dimensions of the beaxnsplitting element is limited.

We present design methods for high efficiency computer generated diffractive optical elements that produce multiple beams. Both binary and continous phase (kinoform) approaches are considered. Experimental results for a specific binary grating for far-IR applications are shown.

Experimental results are presented on the optical and infrared properties of Si02, deposited on Si by means of low temperature thermal decomposition of silane with a mixture of oxygen, in a flowing nitrogen atmosphere. The experimental conditions during the deposition were chosen such that the decomposition of silane was sufficiently low for the growth of uniform and dense layers. Good control on thickness in the range 50 to 230 nm was obtained by selecting proper growth temperature and nitrogen carrier gas flow rate. It was found, experimentally, that the refractive index varies as a function of the Si02 thickness up to a certain point and only then attains its constant value. The Infrared absorption spectrum of the above films was studied in the range of 200 cm1 to 4000 cm1. The position and widths ofthe absorption bands at nominally 1070, 810 cm1 d 465 nm, and the changes in these as a function of thickness were used to shed light on the behaviour of the refractive index. It was also established that the absorption bands obey the Lambert-Bouguer law.

This paper proposes the use of a folded Schmidt lens in the design of an infrared FLIR camera. The fold mirror is utilized for two tasks. The first task is the classic role of folding the optical axis at right angle thus enabling access to the image plane. The second task is to function as a scan mirror when the detector is a linear array.

Much effort has been expended in attempting to retrofit existing fire control systems to accomodate laser rangefinders and designators. Current solutions generally require major structural changes and substantial reengineering of fire control optics, all at significant cost. The present solution provides a retrofit structure for a helicopter fire control system, specifically the M-65 optical sight cluster system manufactured by Hughes Aircraft Company, also referred to as the Turret Sight Unit (TSU) . The integration of the laser range finder and designator does not require structural changes to the helicopter turret and its support, and necessitates only minor changes to the fire control optics.

A fully automatic in-flight boresight unit for line of sight (LOS) alignment between a FLIR operating in the thermal infrared region (8 - 12 urn), a near infrared position sensor (0.8 urn), a visual optical system (0.45 - 0.65 urn), a CCD camera (0.45 - 0.65 urn) , and a laser designator (1.06 urn) is presented. The compactness, sirnplicity and high accuracy of the system is shown.

Plastic hollow fibers for IR transmission were characterized employing several physical and chemical methods. The dielectric layer was found to be fl-AgI or 'y-AgI on the surface. The amount of iodine decreases gradually at deeper layers. The equivalent depth was determined from coulometric experiments; 0.3- 1 .6 jim. Several treatments in dermatology and oral surgery were carried •out.

Off-axis unstable resonators are used in copper vapor lasers to obtain low divergence beam. In the common resonator design, the edge of a small diameter convex mirror is used as the front mirror. The beam pointing of such a laser is strongly dependent on the operation conditions of the head, and thus day to day fluctuations are observed. In a new cavity design, the convex mirror is coupled via the edge of a flat scraper mirror. As a result, a pointing stability as small as 0.2 mrad was observed. It is shown that in lasers with short inversion life time and high gain geometrical considerations may explain temporal and spatial properties of the laser output. The spatial and temporal properties of a 28 mm diameter CVL are also described, and the mode of operation of the laser is discussed.

Abstract Extension of the joint transform correlator (JTC) operation to include complex reference image has been presented. Such amplitude and phase reference images are common when using a single harmonic (circular, radial, logarithmic, etc.) in correlation setups or when implementing composite filters. The analysis of an aspect view (tilt) invariant pattern recognition system, using logarithmic harmonics decomposition, JTC principles and composite filter techniques, is described followed by experimental results that can be obtained in real time.

The laser performance of rare earth doped crystals and glasses can be significantly improved by codoping with an addiontal ion which absorbs the pump light and efficiently transfers the energy to the lasing rare earth ion. Such methods have been used in chromium-neodymium doped gadolinium scandium gallium garnets, glasses and glass ceramics, and manganese-thulium doped lead zinc gallium fluoride glasses. Energy transfer between donors and acceptors in such materials has been traditionally modeled by the Foerster-Dexter equation. However, it has been found recently that an anomalous energy transfer can occur at very short times inconsistent with the above model. We propose that such transfer can occur due to two additional causes: 1 . the physical pairing of donors and acceptors in the materials and 2. additional short-range interactions which noticeably increase the transfer rate between donors and acceptors. Models for both these cases are presented and compared with experimental results.

We examine the luminescent properties of cerium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Ce:YAG) under cathodoluminescence. The cerium emission is strongly affected by the presence of intrinsic defects it the crystal. We show that a model based on non-radiative energy transfer is compatible with the results obtained from cathodoluminescence exreriments.

A technique for obtaining a sharp output-to--input response from optically addressed spatial light modulators is presented. In this technique, a portion of the output light is fed back into the input. By controlling the portion of light that is fed back it is possible to change the slope and the shape of the response curve of the modulator so as to improve the sensitivity to external inputs. Experimental results demonstrating sharp thresholding by exploiting both positive and negative feedbacks with a liquid crystal light valve SLM are illustrated.

Recent research on human target acquisition using eleciro-optic systems in cluttered environments has proposed that an appropriate measure of the clutter content of a scene is the average variance of the intensity of the scene when subdivided into blocks whose linear dimensions are approximately twice the size of the target. We show that, for natural scenes characterized by a particular fractal pattern and spatial frequency spectrum, such a criterion is equivalent to the analysis of the number of edge pixels appearing on the picture after passing through a DOOG filter. In addition, the statistical criterion can be related to the phase spectrum of the picture and the fractal characterization of the picture. Based on psychophysical data, this suggests that a search process based on "popouts" and edge detection for the human visual system is appropriate. Incorporating this effect both in the analysis of the clutter and of the target image allows us to propose a new target detection model; good corroboration with experimental data has been obtained.

We present a ruggedized portable fiber-optic Faraday-rotation current sensor, that exhibits good and stable performance characteristics. The sensor has been tested and calibrated against a commercial induction-coil type device. The resultant scale-factor is in a very good agreement with the theoretical one, calculated following extensive fiber birefringence measurements. The measured sensor noise equivalent current is 0.23Amp/Vi.

Transmittance of curved optical fibers is examined as a means for measuring refractive index (RI) of the surrounding medium. The transmitted flux is measured experimentally for U-shaped glass fibers with radii of curvature ranging from 3:1 to co:1, nine liquids of different RI's, and light sources at S different wavelengths. Flux angular spread was controlled by altering the distance between source and fiber. Measurements of the transmitted flux as a function of these three parameters were obtained at approximately 1000 parameter values. The results are compared with two recent ray tracing simulations. Comparison leads to simplification of the computer analysis, and indicates the importance of the angular spread at the fiber entrance for control of the sensitivity. These conclusions enable optimization of curved fiber sensors for practical applications.

Slantly polished fibers and waveguides coupling as a means for achieving both low optical power reflection and efficient power transmission is proposed. Return losses exceeding -70 dB can be obtained in fiber-to-Lithium Niobate waveguides operating at ) = 0.633 jm and ) = 1.3 pm by polishing the fiber at an angle of 6°. A phase matching condition between the propagation constants ,8 and the polishing angles in the fiber and the waveguide: fl(fiber)sincx(fiber) = fl(waveguide)sina(waveguide) must be fulifiled in order to enable efficient power coupling. Polishing angle tolerances of approximately lO are allowed for a maximum of 1 dB decrease in the coupling efficiency.

Moire deflectometry is capable of accurately measuring various properties of reflective surfaces. The basic quantity derived from fringe shifts is a map of surface slopes in a given direction. When surface variations are small and rapid, such as on a rough surface, the Imperfections are evident as fringe contrast reduction rather than fringe distortions. The roughness parameters are obtained from the dependence of the contrast on deflectometer sensitivity. The fringe visibility vs. sensitivity curve is a scaled version of the surface autocovariance. The autocovariance function allows quantitative evaluation of average surface heights, RMS, slope RMS, periodicities, and other features which determine the surface quality. The method is demonstrated on a diamond turned hard disk with concentric circular periodic grooves. The surface period and direction is derived from the autocovariance.

The quantum efficiency and crosstalk of backside illuminated indium antimonide photodiodes in hybrid focal plane arrays are calculated. An improved structure with crosswise ohmic contacts at the backside of the thinned InSb substrate is described. The simulations predict a significant reduction in the crosstalk while retaining high quantum efficiency. High quality InSb PV detector arrays and test devices were fabricated. The process includes lithography on both sides, etch thinning technique and highly controlled passivation on each side for optimum performance. The measurements show good agreement with calculations and indicate that there is no degradation due to fabrication. This study demonstrates the feasability of an improved hybrid staring FPA combining backside illuminated 2D PV detectors in thinned InSb coupled to a silicon processor.

A high performance IR zoom telescope with a 15:1 magnification ratio arid fully automatic compensation for changes in optical properties caused by changes in temperature has been developed. This novel IR zoom telescope is characterized by using of three moveable optical element groups, instead of two usually used. Magnification change in it is performed by moving these three optical groups in a predetermined manner with respect to two stationary lens elements. The positioning of the three movable lens groups is controlled by means of a computerized program. The required magnification and the measured system temperature comprise the inputs to the program. The main advantages of this new telescope design relative to existing IR zoom telescopes are: better MTF performance, reduced sensitivity of optical performance to temperature changes, small number of lenses, wider magnification range and high optical transmission.

This work presents quantitative evaluation of errors in measurement that arise in using a thermal imager as a radiometer. The analysis will mainly deal with the 7 13 micron spectral region . The main sources contributing to errors in spatial radiometric measurements can be divided into three categories: 1) inaccuracies in determining atmospheric transmittance and path radiance, 2) calibration errors and dynamic range problems due to nonlinearities of instrument response, 3) errors due to spatial response arising from the finite point spread function and non uniformities of the field of view. The contribution of each of these factors to the final cumulative error in the measured radiometric quantity will be analysed and the sensitivity to the individual factors shown. This analysis is done with respect to an existing measurement system in use, namely the AGEMA 780 Dual Band Thermovision Imager.

The statistical and spatial properties of infrared images of ground terrain in the LWIR band were studied extensively, and some generalised models were developed. In this paper we show that some of these models can applied also to the SWIR band. The experimental results, combined with simulation results, demonstrate that there is not any significant difference in the radiative variances of ground terrain images in the object plane, between the two band. In the image plane the results are not compatible with the above stipulations. This dicrepancy is caused bythe differences in signal, atmospheric transmission and system response between the two spectral bands. Thus7 if these effects are not minimized and taken into account, the image obtained will represent reality with a low contrast image.

Although optical turbulence is usually modelled with micrometeorology, it is shown here that this can be done successfully too with macrometeorology using meteorological parameters measured with standard weather stations and predicted in standard weather forecasts. This makes it possible to predict 2 according to weather forecast. Two experimentally-derived models are developed - one for practical use and the other for scientific understanding. Correlation of prediction with measurement is on the order of 90% or more, over large dynamic ranges of meteorological parameters. One interesting aspect of these measurements is the statistical evidence that scintillations are affected by aerosols, particularly under conditions of high total aerosol cross sectional area. This is attributed primarily to increased refractive index changes encountered by radiation which penetrates through the aerosols.

Recent investigations of the atmospheric transmittance in the 15-25jm spectral region have produced experimental results regarding the absorption of the water continuum. From these results it is quite evident that the excessive absorption of the water vapor (the water continuum) cannot be explained only by the theoretical continuum model based on the modified impact theory and the Van Vleck-Huber model of line broadening. The measured continuum absorption has spectral features similar to those roughly predicted by the water dimer theory. A quantitative agreement between the experimental results and the prediction according to the dimer theory was found.

The analysis of radiometric relations is a basic requirement for the performance evaluation of any detection system. The CiNeRaMa model presents a tool for fast and reliable system assessment at many engagement scenarios including different targets, atmospheric properties and electro-optical sensors.The model determines the contrast-to-noise ratio ( CNR ) which depends on the detailed parameters of the particular scenario and in general cnnot be expressed analytically . Comparable models such as SENSAT-21 and GASIEL2 calculate the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the scene of interest . They do not include background clutter noise and thus are inadequate for accurate estimation of detection ranges of the target in the scene. The CiNeRaMa computer model includes the radiometric calculator-driver and file-interface with LOWTRAN-i3 computer code. The driver unit includes user-friendly interface for definition of the target spectral signature and sensor parameters (optics , spectral filters , detectors, etc. ) . The geometry and atmospheric conditions of engagement scenario are defined using LOWTRAN-7 code. They may include meteorology (visibility, humidity etc.) ,sensor and target position , sun coordinates , background temperature and albedo (terrain , clouds or space ) . The calculation includes path transmittance and radiance (including atmospheric thermal emission , solar single or multiple scattering ) , as well as target and background refi ecti on. The radiometric results of engagement scenario can be employed for sensitivity analyses of sensor design.

We present a novel non-contact holographic optical profilometer, which is light weight, compact and relatively simpler. Computer simulation results reveal that surface measurements with sub-micron resolution are possible both in the horizontal and vertical directions.

A design of a mechanically extra stable cavity is to alignment errors in two degrees of freedom, adjustment for optimum alignment. This extremethat the radiation bounces back and forth twice in trip. A transportable and coupled to a of controling the the cavity. The theoretically , and around the laboratory. described, which is sensitive and needs only a focusing stability stems from the fact, the cavity for full round compact external cavity, based on the described design was built laser diode array. This cavity was used to conduct experimentsmodes of the compound system by appropriate aperturing inside cavity proved experimentally to be stable as predicted maintained its performance while being transported manually

A method for vibrational analysis by time-average holographic interferometry was developed, based on conventional holography, and especially suitable for laboratories not equipped with ESPI system. It overcomes the main drawback of conventional time-average recording: the inhibitively cumbersome procedure which requires recording a new hologram for each set of vibrational parameters. Only one holographic recording of the tested object at rest is needed, and image processing techniques are used to construct time-average holographic pictures of the vibrating body over any desired frequency (and amplitude) range. The method is simple, almost as rapid as ESPI (approaching real time) , yielding pictures of good quality and fine details with resolution limited by that of the TV camera used. The method was applied to, and is demonstrated in the determination of vibrational modes of jetengine blades.

1ariy electrooptical (E'O) systems incorporate an inaging sensor and a Line of Sight (LOS) deflection mirror. At a higher system level, such as for fire control or mIssile homing applications, these sensors are required to neasure angular target position very accurately. This work presents ar approach that has been developed for the modeling and calibration of such electrooptical systems. Using a generic system which includes a mirror mounted on a twoaxis LOS steering unit and an imaging sensor, a description of the mathematical model of the system is given here. This model may be used for system performance analyses as well as for developing various algorithms for the calculation of target angular position. The system model uses a number of calibration parameters such as gimbal nonorthogonality and other assembly and production errors. These are obtained from laboratory measurement results via a mathematical calibration model. We explain how the calibration model is developed from the system model. The method shown here can significantly reduce the number of computations and the look-up-table capacity needed in an operational system, as well as reducing the extent of laboratory calibrations usually required.