Using the Lockheed in-house computer program OPTIMA for optical design and analysis, a facility has been implemented which enables the optical designer to target any performance parameter at any temperature in the range of interest. A database with thermal properties of the optical materials was added to the program along with routines facilitating the evaluation of an optical system at arbitrary temperatures. In the optimization section of the program, alternate lens configurations are used to represent the lens at different temperatures. During the optimization the program automatically changes temperature and computes the requested performance parameters at the desired temperatures. Applications for this method include the design of high-performance camera objectives optimized for a large temperature range.

Optical systems are traditionally represented by a sequential series of `optical surfaces' that are ordered in the same manner experienced by light traveling from an object to an image point through the system. The actual system is composed of 3-D components which include these `active optical surfaces' as the external surface of the component. Modern simulation technology is based on solid modeling which provides a very close representation to the actual system and enables computer integrated manufacturing by being accurate and comprehensive enough for fabrication. The classical method to analyze an optical system is based on ray tracing, a technique based on geometrical optics where light propagation is assumed to be simulated by rays from the object to the image point. Each ray is represented by a linear vector traveling through the system to the evaluation plane by iterations. Each step calculates the propagation between two successive surfaces in a sequential order. The shift from `sequential surfaces' representation to `solid models,' which changes the classical method of ray tracing, but offers a variety of new analytical opportunities, is discussed.

In the first part of this paper, we examine previously used methods for the assessment of the subjective performance of lenses coupled to the eye, we establish the need for a unified means of assessment in terms of visual tasks and targets, and we propose such a means. In the second part, we address some common aberration balancing questions, with a view to presenting concrete recommendations for optical design. The balancing questions examined are: defocus and accommodation, accommodation and longitudinal color, spherical aberration and defocus, astigmatism and field curvature, field curvature and accommodation, transverse color and astigmatism, and coma and astigmatism.

A differential equation method has been developed for design of reflecting systems which will be completely free of astigmatism. From caustic theory and a generalization of the Coddington equations, a second order differential equation can be setup to shape a corrective mirror which eliminates all orders of astigmatism in an optical system. The constant optical path length condition is used to shape another mirror in the system to control spherical aberration. Analysis of results of application of this differential equation design approach to a two-mirror anastigmat is presented, which shows its ability to yield a two-mirror system with high performance over a large field of view.

Using the concept of matrix theory for lens design, a triplet lens can be replaced by a singlet lens which has an equivalent system matrix without changing its optical performance. Then, using third order Siedel's first aberration coefficient of the singlet lens is equal to zero, and the focal length and the physical length of the triplet lens are kept constant as constraints, an algebraic technique for optimizing a triplet lens is derived. Results show that this new optimizing technique is more effective than other conventional techniques for optimizing a triplet lens in the case of plane waves.

For many illumination applications, it is desirable for a laser beam to have a uniform irradiance distribution across its diameter. Refractive and reflective systems for reshaping a laser beam profile have been proposed and discussed for many years. One of the refractive systems consisting of two plano-aspherical lenses operates with high efficiency. Recently, a prototype of this two aspherical lens reshaping system has been made from CaF₂. The performance of the prototype is presented in this paper. The optical design and analysis of this system also are discussed.

In this paper, we present a new fisheye projection lens for 8 perforation 70 mm format film. The lens has an aperture of F/2.4 and a total field of view of 163 degree(s). We discuss design considerations, and compare predicted with measured performance data.

An all acousto-optic infrared scene projector (IRSP) has been developed for use in evaluating thermal-imaging guidance systems at the Kinetic Kill Vehicle Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulator (KHILS) facility located at Elgin AFB, Florida. The IRSP is a laser source based projector incorporating Scophony illumination and scanning methods to produce 96 X 96 pixel multi-wavelength images at very high frame rates (400 Hz). The IRSP is composed of five functionally similar optical trains, four of which are fed with a different `color' infrared laser. The separate scenes from each optical train are then combined and projected simultaneously into the imaging guidance system.

The CdS/CdSe Liquid-Crystal Light Valve (LCLV) has been investigated, especially the switching ratio, contrast, and response time have been analyzed and calculated. Moreover, the optical-electronic properties of the LCLV have been measured. Such devices have been successfully used for large-screen display.

This paper reports on a novel plastic-molded total-reflection type polygonal laser beam deflector. The present deflector is fabricated by the optical resin molding which is suitable for low cost mass production, because expensive and time consuming aluminum reflection film deposition process has been eliminated. A bar-code reader that employs the present laser beam deflector shows readout performance comparable to that of a bar-code reader that employs the conventional aluminum deflector. The condition of no deterioration of the field depth of the resolving power for the bar-code is that, waviness on a deflector surface W_max is to be less than 10 nm.

The new Intense Point Source (IPS) consists of the regular linear Xenon flash tube mounted in a newly patented Orthogonal Parabolic Reflector (OPR) (Patent No. 5,037,191). The system integrates the radiation for the long linear lamp into a very small point on the order of 3 to 6 millimeters in diameter, with a 90 degree(s) divergent angle. A diffuser and lens systems are employed to provide either a narrow beam of a few degrees for long range photography or a diffused light for close-up photography to provide softened, penetrating lighting. Light intensity distribution data for the new flash system as compared to that of the original Vivitar 285 flash lamp as measured in the Vivitar lab, are presented.

This paper describes catadioptric Fresnel lenses of a single lens material that are free of longitudinal chromatic aberration at all transmitted wavelengths. The design requirements for both convergent and divergent achromatic singlet catadioptric Fresnel lenses are given. A positive achromatic catadioptric doublet, consisting of divergent and convergent catadioptric Fresnel lens elements, is discussed. These microstructured lenses are analyzed using a newly developed non-sequential ray tracing program. An off-axis catadioptric Fresnel lens, for use as a high-aperture light collection system, has been replicated in optical acrylic plastic.

Beam agility for large aperture optical systems has proven to be a challenging engineering problem. This paper describes optical engineering issues of an agile, 1/2 meter aperture, 30 degree(s) field of regard telescope. Key system tradeoffs considered in the optical design are discussed.

Phase measuring interferometry is well established as the premier measurement technology in support of optical component fabrication. Commercial instruments are available that provide surface measurements over a range of radii and diameters. However, microlithographic lenses have increased in complexity and scale to the point that most commercial instruments fail to provide adequate surface coverage. Most severe is the ability to measure large diameter, convex surfaces. Anticipating the demands of today's microlithographic lens production, Tropel began design and construction of a new class of phase measuring interferometers in 1990. As a catadioptric design, these instruments feature a large spherical mirror to accomplish their purpose. This paper reviews the optical design of the large aperture reflective interferometer (LARI), and various considerations in their construction.

We discuss the problem of how to determine the optimum focus during MTF or similar observerless testing of visual instruments. We review the literature to show that the most commonly employed method, maximization of the response at a single spatial frequency, can lead to very large errors in predicting the visual quality of an instrument. We propose alternative criteria, and examine their behavior through focus and in the presence of aberrations. Current data support the assertion that an appropriately defined radius of encircled energy, or an averaged MTF integral, are the best candidates to serve both as general image quality criteria and as a means for determining the optimum focus. We conclude by proposing an experiment that should resolve any remaining questions.

An optical minimum configuration of a laser interferometer for noncooperative scattering objects is investigated. An optimization of the SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) of the homodyne receiver is achieved by beam design. Scattering measurement object surfaces generate a speckle pattern on the detector surface which influences the SNR. Within the whole operating range of the optics, the transmitted light spot on the surface under investigation should therefore be small. The receiving optics should image the light spot onto the detector surface. The detection of a noncooperative object in a distance of 26 m is proven experimentally.

Based on the principle that after illuminating the rough surface the two coherent plane waves can be coherent and this coherence has something to do with the surface roughness a split system with an adjustable incident angle is proposed in this paper -- it consists of a moving reflector and a double Dove prism which can divide one beam of the plane wave into two coherent plane waves. Through an interferometer the scattered coherent optical field is produced and a correlation speckle pattern which can be received by CCD is produced. The visibility of the pattern together with the other collected signals such as incident angle and so on are put into a computer. After data processing, the result value of the roughness is exported directly by the computer. The experimental results show that because of the adjustable incident angles this new method can improve the measuring sensitivity greatly on the condition that it does not influence the measuring extent and meanwhile, because of the introduction of the CCD and the computer, it can obviously strength the real-time and aging of measuring.

A room temperature functional test station for a cryogenically cooled far infrared (IR) sensor was designed to provide a reduced background yet allow the sensor to be evaluated in standard laboratory surroundings. The functional test station (FTS) included a blackbody source, 11.5 inch clear aperture eccentric pupil (`off-axis') parabolic mirror, and sensor mount assembled onto a vibration isolated optical table and covered by a class 100 laminar flow bench. The emissivity contribution of the test station to the total background of the test station and sensor system was less than 30%. While atmospheric effects were significant, they were not detrimental to functional testing. The functional test station allowed optimization of sensor focus as well as integration of analog signal processing and object digital signal processing. This was accomplished without the attendant cost and complexity of a cryo-vacuum facility.

Evaluation of infrared sensor performance begins with integration on an optical test station and initial acquisition of a source target image. Preliminary performance evaluation includes sensor radiant response, image performance, and sensor alignment. Integration and preliminary performance evaluation may be expedited by the use of an innovative target consisting of a cold background surrounding a hot extended source with a thin, cold wire obscuration. This paper describes an appropriate target geometry and provides a nomogram that allows estimation of sensor focal error based on an observed ratio of target image response between two detector elements.

A new technological approach makes possible the fabrication of relief computer-generated focusing elements for infrared radiation by using a dry photopolymer recording material. A photopolymer material, was used to make a computer-generated focusing element. Its performance is described when it is used with a CO₂ laser and solar illumination. Results describing the spectral frequencies measured are presented here.

The purpose of this paper is to study the sampling and quantization effects on the hologram for communication purposes, and evaluate the system performance while considering the appearance of the different types of noises: (1) nonlinearity, (2) sampling effect, (3) additive noise, and (4) quantization noise. A technique for modeling the experimental holographic system, especially on the behavior of the hologram, is proposed. First, we analyze the linear and nonlinear holographic systems and simulate their performances. Therefore, the nonlinear effects on the hologram are studied. Simulation is provided to verify the theoretical results shown here. It is found that the linear hologram is more preferable than the nonlinear hologram in performance, although the nonlinear hologram has a better utilization of light efficiency. The downsampled hologram will reduce the light-use efficiency and thus the system performance is degraded. Moreover, the additive channel and quantization noise effects on the hologram are studied. For examples: the amplitude of the additive noise must be less than 1/100 of the average power per pixel of the hologram during the exposure; an 8-bit quantizer is necessary to transmit the digitized holographic signals. With the results obtained here, a holographic system can be designed efficiently.

We already discussed the bistable behavior of a Fabry Perot resonator filled with molecular media as well as the characteristics of a spatial light modulator (SLM) based on the nonlinearity induced by excited state absorption. In the present paper we present two practical configurations. First we analyze a cavity-less bistable element which removes some of the realization problems related to high finess cavity. In this configuration the nonlinear medium is located in one arm of an optical interferometer. The scheme provides the required amount of positive feedback by the bistable mechanism -- but without a cavity. We applied the nonlinear eikonal approximation, a method which takes care of the detailed propagation effects, and obtained conditions for bistability, as well as optimizing the design parameters such as the output mirror reflectivity, etc.

We have proposed and discussed that an introduction of the Faraday medium to the optical bistable devices brings new and good characteristics on the application to optical sensing. In this paper, characteristics of the optical bistability are analyzed theoretically for the optical bistable operation with the Faraday effect, the threshold power, and several parameter dependences of the characteristic. Consequently, by controlling them with an external magnetic field which is an operatable factor, the optical bistability shows much usefulness and effectiveness by the following points: the controllability of the bistable operation, the reduction in the threshold power, and the enlargement in the discontinuous power variation ratio.

The transfer function theory for large core optical fiber (bare fiber) and fiber cable (LOCAT) reveals a ray's actual interaction with the fiber lightguide. By applying this new tool in a fiber optic instrument design, we have improved the repeatability and stability of this fiber optic temperature instrument from 4 degree(s)C to 0.2 degree(s)C at 1000 degree(s)C. Several new concepts such as cable bend increments, fiber status, and fiber status stability also are discussed in this paper.

The application of large-aperture bimorph mirrors in an adaptive telescope is suggested and analyzed for the first time. Their advantages and peculiarities as compared with adaptive mirrors, having discrete control actuators, are discussed. The principles of a new generation adaptive telescope design and use of adaptive bimorph mirror in the capacity of the main telescope mirror for large-scale low-frequency wavefront distortion compensation are suggested on the basis of radiation distortion analysis in the telescope. The piezoceramic plates above 100 mm in diameter which were made according to two different production technologies are suggested for the first time for the building of large-dimension bimorph structures. The multilayer mosaic forming method of these structures is described. The computer simulation results of the 3.3-meter bimorph adaptive mirror design and low-order optical aberration compensation are presented.

The paper introduces the methods of making secret codes in the holograms for the purpose of anti-counterfeiting, especially the production of two kinds of visual holographic secret codes. The optical arrangements for recording are presented, and the effective results from using the visual secret codes into holographic trade marks are reported.

Photon Dynamics' IPT system provides high throughput and excellent voltage measurement sensitivity on an AMLCD panel. It is based upon an electro-optical technology to measure the voltage stores on an LCD pixel of an AMLCD active plate. This paper discusses the system performance requirements. From these we derive the optical subsystem requirements. The optical design form and its performance are presented. The current system status, system design issues, and the future improvements also are discussed.

The correction of phase aberrations in optical systems using an adaptive liquid crystal phase screen having 64 X 64 pixels is considered. These adaptive components have advantages over deformable mirror systems in that liquid crystal technology is relatively inexpensive and large pixelation densities can be achieved. In particular we address the application of these devices to astronomical adaptive optics. A simulator of the phase correction plate at work using time changing distorted wave fronts is described. Preliminary measurements of the optical flatness and response times of the prototype device are discussed.

An interpretation of the dynamic caustics of optical shadow is presented for the mode II nonuniformly propagating crack by considering the higher-order expansion of the stress field near the crack tip. The asymptotical analysis of the local stress involves not only the instantaneous speed v(t) of the moving crack tip and the instantaneous stress intensity factor K_II(t) but their time derivatives dv(t)/dt and dK_II(t)/dt as well. Through the gradient of the nearfield stress distribution with radial coordinate terms of r^-1/2 and r^1/2, the mapping equations of the optical shadows of dynamic caustics are obtained for the fast running crack of shear mode.

A simple microprocessor controlled optical sensor is proposed in this paper. It can measure two kinds of optical information: the distance between sensor and the illuminated area of the object and the inclination angles of that area. Under the control of the microprocessor, the sensor can also profile a full 360 degree(s) 3-D picture of the object by scanning a scene mechanically in vertical dimension and rotating the object to be measured in the horizontal plane. The proposed sensor has been assembled and some preliminary experiments show that it can sense the distance with a range of 10 cm in accuracy of +/- 1 mm for objects having diffuse reflectivity and the inclination angles of the area with a range of +/- 20 degree(s) with accuracy of 1.5 degree(s). A shape of a mannequin head is profiled in a full 360 degree(s) way.

The two monochromators of this instrument (excitation monochromator and emission monochromator) have been designed with a specific optical system which has higher transfer energy. All the parts of this instrument have been placed in the inverse plane (33 X 21.5 cm), which makes the instrument compact and installment easy. The design also provides a novel idea to solve the contradiction between system energy and limited power, it only takes a little power to complete most of the fluorescence analyses. An internal microprocessor utilizes chemomtric analysis techniques to determine the concentrations of target analyses in a complex chemical matrix. Typical analysis techniques include multivariate linear regression and principal components analysis.

A 2D-image real-time measurement system has been studied and used to measure the field- intensity distribution of a laser array line focal illumination. It provided effective parameters for x-ray laser research.

The manufacture of complex multilayers requires the maker to have a satisfactory monitoring system. The monitoring system can control accuracy not only in optical thicknesses of nonquarterwave layers but can also compensate deposition errors in real-time in order to secure a stable monitoring and eventually to achieve the desired optical performance. In this paper, a computer controlled apparatus for monitoring of wideband optical coatings is described. A method, based on performance measurements during the monitoring of a layer in situ, has been developed to determine the actual refractive index and thickness of the layer in vacuo. The method can be used as a means of detecting deposition errors.

Low voltage plasma assisted evaporation (PAE) technique has been investigated as an effective evaporation technique for the deposition of oxide films of high optical performance. The PAE process consists of an electron beam evaporator and a large current plasma source. The guided wave method is used to measure the refractive index and attenuation coefficients of guided modes of some oxide films deposited by PEA. The experimental systems and results are presented.

Based on scale diffraction theory, binary phase gratings are designed and the effect of fabrication errors on the diffraction efficiency and uniformity is discussed. The theoretical and numerical analysis shows that (0, non-(pi) ) grating is more sensitive to phase delay error than (0, (pi) ) grating. Patterning error is very complex to analyze, but we can give a maximum intensity deviation to the grating.

The use of a standard aspheric profile to describe conventional optical elements in lens design programs has advantages such as independent verification of lens system performance by different individuals, ease of interpretation by different manufacturers, etc. A model of diffractive optical element is proposed for consideration as a standard form to have similar benefits. Diffractive elements are characterized here by (1) the equation of the supporting surface (substrate), and (2) the phase function. The phase function itself consists of two terms: (a) the stigmatic phase term, and (b) the astigmatic phase term. The stigmatic phase term is a rotationally symmetric function and is related to the property of the diffraction element to image free from aberration one axial point onto another, as in holograms, at a specific (reference) wavelength. The astigmatic phase term is an arbitrary function of the space coordinates, it takes several forms: it can impart aspheric deformations (or corrections) to incident wave fronts or it can be used to model different types of gratings.

A novel method is presented for the experimental determination of refractive index profiles for planar media of monotonically decreasing refractive index, such as those used for optical waveguides. The technique is based upon a generalization of the classical experiment of Lloyd's Mirror, involving the interference pattern formed by a point source and its mirage, i.e., its reflection in such a graded planar medium.

Using the solution of the ray equations for a radial gradient index medium, the caustic merit function for a plane wave incidence upon a singlet lens is evaluated and averaged over the entrance pupil. Then, the optical performance of this lens is investigated in the view of the dependence of this function on the lens parameters. Also, the efficiency of this lens for coupling energy from a source to a detector, located at the vertex of the rear surface of this lens, is evaluated for the incidence of plane and spherical waves upon such a lens.

Using the Ag⁺-Na⁺ exchange in a special optical glass one- and two- dimensional refractive index profiles of definite shape have been realized. It is shown that good quality one-dimensional parabolic profiles can be used for micro-cylindrical lens fabrication with high possible numerical aperture N.A. <EQ 0.46. Two-dimensional refractive index gradients of stripe waveguide geometry generated by field assisted ion exchange through a linear mask window form single cylindrical lenses as well as cylindrical lens arrays with comparable low N.A. <EQ 0.15 which can be used for the transformation of the weakly divergent direction of a laser diode or laser diode bars. Two crossed lenses of different numerical aperture are applicable for high power laser diode collimation.

A photographic objective employing axial gradient-index (GRIN) elements is described and compared with a conventional double Gauss lens. Comparable imaging performance and increased relative illumination at the edge of field are realized in the GRIN design even though it has fewer optical elements.

Axial gradient index lens blanks with values of (Delta) n up to 0.5, thicknesses and diameters up to 25 and 200 mm, respectively, have been produced by fusing together thin layers of glasses of progressively different indices of refraction. Smooth, step-free gradients are formed by controlled diffusion within and across the layers. Computer software has been developed to prescribe the gradient index profile and to control the diffusion process. Linear, quadratic, cubic, and a variety of other gradient index profiles can be produced by this method over a wide refractive index range. This paper discusses the diffusion software, process and metrology for a gradient blank currently in process to be used in a varifocal slide projector prototype.

Recent advances in axial gradient material fabrication via the diffusion of glass plates has opened the door to a wide variety of optical design applications incorporating entire lenses of gradient index material. A proprietary software-driven process developed at LightPath Technologies Inc. creates gradient index glass by fusing together a stack of discrete glass plates, where each constituent plate has a distinctive composition and desired optical properties. LightPath's ability to prescribe large optical index changes (up to 0.47) throughout a glass substrate of virtually any diameter and thickness (macro gradient), invokes an interesting question: what are the properties of a solid gradient index lens and how can these properties be used most efficiently and effectively? This paper reports on a parametric study of third order spherical aberration vs. shape factor, for a macro gradient F/3 singlet lens whose index varies by +/- 0.4 in linear, quadratic and cubic profiles.

A number of problems connected with producing the graded-index micro-objective with a spherical end for medical endoscopy, including the optical material and the mathematical modeling of optical and physico-chemical processes, have been considered in view of the technology of producing those objectives.

When gradient index rods (GI rods) were prepared by interfacial-gel copolymerization, the bulk polymerization caused serious shrinkage, which, in turn, resulted in inevitable defects. These defects in GI rods can be reduced by control of reaction conditions. Experimental results revealed that properly adjusting the reaction conditions such as concentrations of initiator, chain transfer agent, and/or temperature could reduce the viscosities of the reaction mixtures and could produce GI rods with a parabolic refractive index distribution.