Although rays form the basis of both our initiative thinking and our numerical modeling of optical systems, we must remember that they are no more than mathematical constructs with a relatively tenuous connection to the physical world. What's more, certain aspects of their link to wave-based models of optical systems have always been problematic. For example, the limit to what rays can tell us about the associated wave field remains unclear. The current state of the art is reviewed and a framework is then outlined that offers a more direct appreciation of these issues and promises extended capabilities for ray-based methods. The new approach involves modeling wave propagation by using--as an intermediate tool--a windowed Fourier transform of the field.

If the monochromatic error function of optical systems is computed analytically by means of aberration coefficients, certain intermediate results of this computation can be used for the investigation of the aberration balance. For the analysis of local minima resulting from optimization, a new automatic technique has been developed that groups together monochromatic aberrations having a large mutual compensation of their effect on the error function. Criteria are proposed to evaluate the quality of aberration balance. Present experience suggests the existence of a correlation between the quality of the pattern of aberration balance and the value of the error function.

Air index induced focal plane movements of optical systems can be avoided by suitable optical design. The design theory for `thin' optical systems and a paraxial approach for arbitrary systems are presented. Applications are e.g. test optics for space applications.

No abstract available.

Conformal dome surfaces may enhance the overall performance of missile systems employing optical sensors by providing a more aerodynamically shaped airframe, however realistic implementation of these highly aspheric surfaces is currently limited by the severe image aberrations they introduce to the transmitted wavefront. This paper proposes an optical correction technique designed to combat the large magnitude and varying nature of third order astigmatism introduced by conformal missile domes. The newly developed technique utilizes axial translation of crossed cylindrical elements to provide variable astigmatism correction as a function of sensor gimbal angle. Theoretical motivation for the optical correction technique is provided, and its performance is assessed in a sample conformal dome and optical sensor systems.

We present calculation schemes for the attainment of isoplanatic imaging on the optical axis using aspherical surfaces. The consequences of the isoplanatic condition for the illumination over the cross-section of an imaging beam are considered. The variation of the useful image volume as a function of the isoplanatic prescription is illustrated by a few examples. Finally, we present a calculation scheme to attain stigmatic imaging over a ring field area.

A method is presented for determining effective approximations to the initial directions of rays that eventually pass through given points on some internal surface of a non-axially symmetric system.

Use of a solid modeler and ray topology information allows logical decisions to replace fuzzy numerical comparisons when determining the correct ray path in a non-sequential ray trace.

No abstract available.

No abstract available.

This paper introduces the group theory and the isomorphism concept in order to demonstrate how to bypass and simplify scientific difficulties using these tools. The isomorphism relationship which is being investigated by this paper is the one existing between the Wigner distribution function and the canonical ABCD integral transformation.

No abstract available.

This paper presents new lens optimization methods based on real-coded genetic algorithms (GAs). We take advantage of GA's capability of global optimization and multi-objective optimization against two serious problems in conventional lens optimization techniques: (1) choosing a starting point by trial and error, and (2) combining plural criteria to a single criterion. In this paper, two criteria for lenses, the resolution and the distortion, are considered. First, we propose a real-coded GA that optimizes a single criterion, a weighted sum of the resolution and the distortion. To overcome a problem of the difficulty in generating feasible lenses especially in large-scale problems, we introduce an enforcement operator to modify an infeasible solution into a feasible one. By applying the proposed method to some small- scale problems, we show that the proposed method can find empirically optimal and suboptimal lenses. We also apply the proposed method to some relatively large-scale problems and show that the proposed method can effectively work under large-scale problems. Next, regarding the lens design problem as a multi-objective optimization problem, we propose a real-coded multi-objective GA that explicitly optimizes the two criteria. We show that effectiveness of the proposed method in multi-objective lens optimization by applying it to a three-element lens design problem.

Global optimization with escape function was applied to a zoom lens with aspherical surfaces. Good solutions of various types were found within a short time.

Method of generalized simulated annealing with constrained random walk is used for global optimization of the structural design of cemented/broken contact doublet lenses in accordance with prespecified paraxial characteristics and primary aberration targets.

No abstract available.

We present here briefly the scientific objectives, the mechanical design as well as the main components and observing modes of the new Thermal Infrared Multi Mode Instrument (TIMMI 2) for the 3.6-m telescope of European Southern Observatory (ESO) at La Silla, Chile. At greater detail we describe the optical design of the instrument.

A spectrograph design was needed for an application in medial optics. Requirements for resolution were modest, cost was to be minimized, and every photon was precious. The initial design used a concave, aberration-corrected, holographically-recorded, diffraction grating. This design cost too much and collected too few of the precious photons. Several design forms, which use refractive optics with a planar diffraction grating, were investigated. The design that was chosen and built uses two aspheric glass lenses, one for collimating and one for focusing, together with a planar diffraction grating.

Designing an imaging spectrometer using an AOTF can be a difficult task since there is no software that can simulate the bulk diffraction that takes place in the AOTF material. In this paper we will describe the method used to simulate the effects of the AOTF using a refractive grating halfway along the crystal. Apart from the zero order we also collect the +1 and -1 orthogonally polarized orders produced by the AOTF, gaining additional information that may be used in certain applications. The +1 and -1 order are imaged into the same focal plane, eliminating the need of a separate focal plane for each order and resulting in considerable savings in cost and mass. The whole system is achromatized from 1.2 - 2.4 microns using only two types of glass, one of which is BK7. The system has been designed, built, and tested.

Recent advances in large format detector arrays and holographic diffraction gratings have made possible the development of imaging spectrographs with high sensitivity and resolution, ideally suited for space-based remote sensing of earth resources. An optical system composed of dual spectrographs and a common fore-optic has been designed for the visible-near infrared (VNIR) and shortwave bands with 10-nm spectral resolution, providing 30-meter ground resolution from an altitude of 605 km. The spectrograph designs are based on a modified Offner 1-X relay with spherical mirrors and a convex spherical holographic grating for the secondary mirror. The fore-optic is a three-mirror anastigmatic telescope with a 360-mm focal length to match the pixel pitch of the respective 1024 X 1024 visible silicon CCD and SWIR HgCdTe FPAs. The primary advantages of this design are the relatively low f-number (f/3), large flat field (18 mm), and low distortion. Preliminary performance results of a VNIR testbed grating and spectrograph are presented and compared to the design predictions.

The interface between optical design and fine-mechanical design is a creatively fertile stage in the design of an optical system. The optical designer learns `What the system is all about' and the fine-mechanical engineer is liberated creatively by finding out what the priorities are. On the other hand, optical tolerancing as a discipline, which is an attractive mix of optical physics at one end and hard-nosed mechanical pragmatism at the other, has a relatively fragmented literature. It is the purpose of this paper to (1) Point out some cultural contrasts between optical engineers, mechanical engineers and physicists in this context, (2) To present a new method of displaying the optical surface sensitivities so that one may identify datum surfaces in an intuitive way and (3) To summarize some useful formulae which provide a key to the mounting of optical components. Together these three aspects illustrate the scenery of this fertile terrain.

Today's compact, high-zoom-ratio lenses for camera are made possible by design analysis, modern design method and manufacturing technologies, and the incorporation of aspheric elements.

The optical design of a visible waveband, high performance zoom lens objective system, which utilizes aspherical surfaces and a zoom group internal stop, is described.

An all-spherical negative-positive-positive telecentric zoom lens suitable for DMD projection is described. The zoom range is 2:1 and the aperture is f/3.

Some ideas of design zoom lenses with removed forward entrance pupils (pinhole zoom lenses) are presented. The methodology and current status will be discussed in this paper. Number of examples illustrate approaches proposed: optical extension adapter which allows to use together a pinhole lens with fixed focal length and video-camera zoom lens to form a zoom pinhole lens; three positive components, including linearly moving collective lens to provide variable focal length.

Recently, in the field of still cameras, AE(auto exposure) and AF(auto focus) became popular enough. But camera shake often become a cause of blurred photograph. In the field of video cameras, comprising an image stabilizing function becomes a must today, then it is expected in the field of still cameras now. In this paper I will introduce the optical design of EF74-300/4-5.6 IS put on the market in 1995 by Canon, which comprise an image stabilizing function.

While computer graphics play a significant component in the development of virtual environments, optics and its interface to the computer graphics software play an essential role as well because they are both required for the effective visualization of virtual environments. Moreover, optical technology is often a component in satisfying stringent tracking requirements. We shall focus in this paper on aspects of virtual environments where optics play a part, describe the development of the VRDA tool for visualization of anatomy, and summarize recent investigations of visual optics for improved head-mounted displays.

Many objective lenses designed for very high volume production now typically contain aspherical surfaces. One such example is an aspherized version of the traditional Cooke triplet. While these aspherical designs are better than their antecedents, the basic design limitations, astigmatism and manufacturing sensitivities, remain. An inverse triplet having a negative, positive, negative configuration and aspherical surfaces has no all-spherical counterparts, but instead depends on the aspheres to correct the primary aberrations. If a sufficient number of surfaces are aspherical, there are more degrees of freedom than required for aberration correction, so the lens can be optimized to reduce the manufacturing sensitivities by reducing the amount of aberration correction contribution by an individual element.

A compact, wide angle projection lens suitable for use with large format LCDs is presented. Plastic aspheric elements are used extensively to help simplify the design and minimize aberrations.

The design of a 90 x 30 degrees FOV anamorphic fisheye lens is presented. The F/4.5 lens maps the FOV on a 60 mm square array detector.

A nearly diffraction limited catadioptric relay system is described which enables the use of very compact projection lenses with dual DMD projectors.

A uniquely packaged three-mirror anastigmat (TMA) is discussed. The telescope has 5 major parts, including the optics. This compact TMA exhibits diffraction-limited performance in the MWIR and LWIR wavelength regions and operates at fast F-numbers and relatively wide fields of view. Optical surfaces and critical mechanical interfaces are single-point diamond-turned, allowing for drop-together assembly and alignment. This paper discusses the evolution of the optical/mechanical design, developed under the auspices of the Standard Missile Company and NAVSEA PMS422.

No abstract available.

Optical chromatism or dispersion, the variation of optical properties with radiation wavelength was discovered by Isaac Newton, who pursued the reflective route to avoid it, whereas Chester Moor Hall and John Dollond, discovered how to overcome it by means of balancing or correction. Chromatic correction implies the use of multiple optical elements of multiple materials in combination, such that their dispersive effects cancel each other.

This paper reviews the methods of selecting optical materials for designing apochromatic and superachromatic lenses. The application of these glass combinations to the design of photographic lenses and microscope objectives is reported.

Most frequently, discussion of low-order primary and secondary axial chromatic aberrations is based on finite spectral band definitions of V-number (V) and relative partial dispersion (P), typically the band between lines F-C, of optical glass types Yet, because of the wavelength variation of refractive index, discussion of V and P at wavelengths other than the visible may bring more questions than answers.

A statistical methodology used to judge optical material interpolation models is presented in this paper. A quality- of-fit criterion related to probable performance impact in lens design is used. This treatment was developed as a way to judge the acceptability in lens design of low and medium precision data so that material model developed from this type of data could be used to some level of confidence in a wide assortment of lens designs--in other words, judging whether the material model is universally applicable. The results will show that a universal acceptability criterion is very demanding on the statistics of the data. However, the method developed lends itself to a wider use in judging material models for less demanding lens designs, too. Therefore, the initial criteria goal may rule out some fit models for universal utility in lens design, but the same material models may be usable for less demanding lens design performance situations.

No abstract available.

With the improvement of the linear-variable-filter (LVF), it is possible to design a cooled field stop using a miniature LVF. The principle, structure and characteristics of this cooled field stop are described in this paper.

For the earth observation system, most newly-designed optical imaging systems are generally based on the principle of pushbroom imaging. With the rapid development of infrared array detectors, this technology, which gives consideration to both spatial resolution and radiative sensitivity, is extended to instruments with thermal infrared wavebands. Comparing with separate detectors system, the pushbroom imaging system using array detectors possesses a wide field of view (FOV) which reduces the off-axis image quality and is harmful to the resolution of the system. The structure using array aperture in synthesized manner makes it possible to enhance both image quality and radiative sensitivity.

Stereo microscopes have many applications in the surgical operations such as opthamaic operations. Stereo zoom microscopes have also been in widespread use because of their versatility. The zoom lens in them are critical for whole optics. This paper describes the method and process of desiging stereo zoom microscope, especially its zoom part, and also gives parts of the MACRO sequences for optimizing its configuration and its cam.

During a few years the microporous polymeric films are widely used in the various practical purposes, such as a filtration and a separation of liquid mixes as well as the separation material in chemical power supply. As a result of the our experimental researches the dependence between the parameters of the technological process of manufactures of these films and their light scattering properties was found. Knowledge of this dependence make it possible to construct the systems of a dynamic control of technological process of manufacture of the microporous polymeric films.

A new configuration of two-mirror optical system with a small fold mirror is presented in this paper. Consisting of a concave (positive power) primary mirror followed by a small flat mirror, a concave (positive power) secondary mirror, four lenses and a beam splitter, it gives the excellent image quality. A 1.5-m EFL, F/10 system of the upper configuration is designed over the 4° field angle and 0.50 ~ 0.70 μm wavelength range. The aberrations have been highly corrected and the distortion is less than 0.3% over the field. The obscuration could be minimized by reducing primary radius of curvature and avoiding the spider that holds the small fold mirror.

The optical design of telecentric optical systems is not a well known or published area of the optical design field. This paper is intended as a partial remedy for these deficiencies. The property of telecentricity will be defined and the use of telecentric optical systems will be discussed. This paper will recommend a standard method of telecentric lens description, quantification, specification, and terminology. Telecentric optical design challenges, difficulties, and recommendations will be discussed. Finally, a complete telecentric optical system design specifications will be presented.

Conventional refractive or reflection-refractive objectives for Night Vision Goggles (NVG) are more complicated because they require larger relative aperture and better correction of aberrations in broadband spectral response. However, further improvement of this objective is limited by conventional optics. Diffractive optics has some unique features, which can improve the imaging quality of the conventional optics system. First, effective dispersion of diffractive optics is opposite in sign to that of refractive elements, the monochromatic aberrations are easier to be corrected. Second, diffractive optics does not contribute Petzval field curvature. Third, another advantages of diffractive optics applied to the objective design are to reduce number of optical elements, overall weight and system cost. Finally, optical imaging quality of NVG that compares with the conventional optics is improved significantly. The paper will describe two hybrid diffractive-refractive objective design configurations of NVG and show comparable or improved imaging quality compared with conventional six- element objective.

Commercial optical design software routinely contains a programming language which can be used to augment and/or extend the optimization control and/or the analytical capabilities of the basic software package. In particular, we extensively use CODE V and its macro language in the design and analysis of optical systems. One example describes a method to calculate and remove or reduce the aspheric departure of a surface during the optimization process. A second example enables the designer to evaluate the dispersion characteristics of several materials over a given spectral band as an aid in selecting refractive lens materials which offer the best chance of achieving a chromatic correction solution in a wide spectral band lens system.

Deviation should be induced in the result of the spectral calibration of a optical remote sensor with large aperture and large field of view (FOV) because of the optical system of the calibration facility can not have a large aperture and a large FOV simultaneously. Detail analysis of the possible deviation were given for a multichannel imager and a imaging spectrometer respectively. For a imaging spectrometer, a modified method of test and data process is proposed.

An interferometer system scheme is proposed. This system consists of two Michelson interferometers and two laser sources and requires no use of modulation technique. Within a displacement range of about 10 microns, it is expected that the absolute displacement can be measured with a very high speed without the phase ambiguity problem. The possibility is demonstrated by numerical analysis.

Most optical systems are generally used in normal conditions, that means, in normal temperature and pressure. but some optical systems,f or example, those specially used in remote satellite or in aerospace, may be affected by the thermal effects caused by the environmental temperature variation. Some deviations will take place in the refractive indices, curvatures, element thicknesses and airspaces of these systems due to the great variation and difference in temperature, pressure and radiation, and certainly the image quality of the systems will be also not as good as that before. Therefore, when we design these systems, the most important thing is to eliminate the thermal effects caused by the environmental temperature. Most of the previous research involved description of the uniform temperature fields, and some researchers studied the theory of radial distribution of temperature gradients in optical glass lenses. Only in recent years the athermalisation techniquies are proposed and some special examples are reported. Several famous optical design corporations have adopted the techniques and used in their optical design software, for example CODE V of O.R.A. and OSLO Six of Sinclair, however these achievements are only initiatory.

This work describes the application of matrices to the modeling and optimization of optical systems under third order approximation. Although third order would require matrices of dimension 24, only 16 different coefficients need be considered for axis symmetric systems. A careful choice of coordinates allows the exact solution of Snell's law at a spherical interface and the determination of all the coefficients for spherical systems. As an application example the model is used to minimize either distortion or coma for a system composed of two thin lenses.

The basic principles and detailed description of the controllable optical laboratory of a new type are reported. The laboratory is based on a modular principle and enabled to mount and adjust any optical scheme (geometrical or wave) in short time. The scheme not only linear, but also ramified, practically of any grade of complexity. The laboratory training works can be carried out in several modes: from usual hand-operated with readout of distances and angles on scales and limbs up to completely controlled IBM PC with digital processing of received one-coordinate distributions (received with photo diodes) or digital optical images (by means CCD-camera). The set of equipment comprises optical component manufacturing with use of photolithography technology (such as slits, apertures, disks, one-dimensional and two-dimensional, regular and chaotic structures, zone plates, etc.) and compactly placed on a common photo pattern. The laboratory equipment is supplied with the software including the guide - programs realizating the laboratory training works, test programs of the control of knowledge and simulating programs allowing to expand an opportunity of real physical experiment. The software is made as the original WINDOWS-applications.

Firstly, various technical aspects of ArF optics are surveyed. At present, the ArF excimer laser is regarded as one of the most promising candidates as a next-generation light source for optical lithography. Discussions are ranging over some critical issues of ArF optics. The lifetime of ArF optics supposedly limited by the radiation compaction of silica glass is estimated in comparison with KrF optics. Availability of calcium fluoride (CaF₂) is also discussed. As a designing issue, a comparative study is made about the optical configuration, dioptric or catadioptric. In the end, our resist-based performance is shown. Secondly, estimated are the future trend regarding minimum geometry and the optical parameters, such as numerical aperture and wavelength. For the estimation, simulations based on aerial images are performed, where in the resolution limit is defined as a minimum feature size which retains practical depth of focus. Pattern geometry is classified into two categories, which are dense lines and isolated lines. Available wavelengths are assumed to be KrF excimer laser ((λ =248 nm), ArF excimer laser (λ =193 nm) and F₂ excimer laser (λ =157 nm). Based upon the simulation results, the resolution limit is estimated for each geometry and each wavelength.

Offner's ring-field all-reflecting triplet was the first successful projection system used in microlithography. It evolved over several generations, increasing NA and field size, reducing the feature sizes printed from three down to one micron. Because of its relative simplicity, large field size and broad spectral bandwidth it became the dominant optical design used in microlithography until the early 1980's, when the demise of optical lithography was predicted. Rumours of the death of optics turned out to be exaggerated; what happened instead was a metamorphosis to more complex optical designs. A reduction ring-field system was developed, but the inevitable loss of concentricity led to a dramatic increase in complexity. Higher NA reduction projection optics have therefore been full-field, either all-refracting or catadioptric using a beamsplitter and a single mirror. At the present time, the terminal illness of optical lithography is once again being prognosed, but now at 0.1 micro feature sizes early in the next millenium. If optics has a future beyond that, it lies at wavelengths below the practical transmission cut-off of all refracting materials. Scanning all-reflecting ring-field systems are therefore poised for a resurgence, based on their well-established advantage of rotational symmetry and consequent small aberration variations over a small, annular field. This paper explores some such designs that potentially could take optical lithography down to the region of 0.025 micron features.

The lighting industry, like many others, has experienced a tremendous amount of change over the last three decades. This change has been, to a large part, driven by significant advancements in technology outside of its own realm. In particular, the increased availability of raw computing power to a wider range of users has had an extensive effect on how this industry designs the optical components of their products. The purpose of this paper is to take a look back at some of hte evolution that has occurred and then to examine where the lighting industry may be going.

The differential geometry of surfaces describes both intrinsic and extrinsic properties: the intrinsic ones, such as the metric, are inherent, whereas extrinsic ones describe shape relative to 3D space, such as the distribution of surface normal vectors. This paper describes how the surface normals of a non-rotationally-symmetric illumination lens are generated, via Snell's law in vector form, from (1) the distribution of light from a sources, and (2) a desired directional distribution of light exiting the lens. These two distributions are expressed as grids with cells of variable size but constant photometric flux, on the Gaussian sphere of directions. The grids must be sufficiently fine so as to generate enough surface normal vectors for accurate numerical generation of the requisite surface. The grids must have the same number of cells, and the same topology (i.e., rectangular vs. polar). The source-intensity grid must be adjusted to account for Fresnel reflection losses. For an unfaceted (smooth-surfaced) lens, the array of surface normal vectors must be adjusted for equality of the crossed partial derivatives. This class of lenses has only recently become producible due to the advent of electric- discharge machining for the shaping of non-rotationally symmetric injection molds for plastic lenses.

The goal of this paper is to construct an irradiance simulation at an image. We will demonstrate a software method written by Al Greynolds for passing bitmap images through a lens system and directly viewing the changes to the image caused by the lens itself, sources outside the field of view, or defects in manufacture. The routine calls the emitting data command and is a new feature in ASAP 6.0 from Breault Research Organization. It is another way to evaluate a lens system and see the effects of irradiance modeling and more. The dynamic range covered by this simulation is not limited to 1 bit, 8 bit or 24 bit images. The distribution file is based on the full floating point precision of the computer and accurate to 7 significant digits. The method will accommodate any dynamic range the user wishes.

In document imaging systems, integrating cavity effect (ICE) is defined as the increase in perceived reflectance of the imaged portion of a document done due to the reflectance of the surrounding portion of that document. The illuminator kernel function, or one trip spread function (OTSF), characterizes the ICE present during an imaging operation. Insight into the functional form of the OTSF of a complex system can be gained from an analysis of the OTSF of simpler, related systems. Closed form expressions for the OTSF of a simple strip illumination system are derived. These expressions are shown to be a good approximation to the exact OTSF of this system by comparison to Monte Carlo- based illumination ray tracing results. Using the closed form expressions one can easily calculate the approximate magnitude of ICE present in similar systems.

Marshall Space Flight Center has been developing a space deployable, lightweight membrane concentrator to focus energy from the sun into a solar engine while remaining aligned to the sun. For an inner surface, this engine has a cylindrical heat exchanger cavity coaligned to the optical axis; the engine warms gas to propel the spacecraft. The membrane concentrator is a 1727 mm (68.00 in.) diameter, F/1.7 Fresnel lens. This large membrane is made from polyimide and is 0.076 mm (0.0030 in.) thick; it has the Fresnel grooves cast into it. The solar concentrator system has a super fast paraboloid reflector near the lens focus and immediately adjacent to the cylindrical exchanger cavity. The paraboloid collects the wide bandwidth and some of the solar energy scattered by the Fresnel lens. Finally, the paraboloid feeds the light into the cylinder. The Fresnel lens also possesses a narrow annular zone that focuses a reference beam toward four detectors that keep the optical system aligned to the sun; thus, occurs a refracting lens that focuses two places summarized as a composite Fresnel lens for solar concentration and alignment.

In microgravitation experiments the shadow profile of molten and undercooled metallic alloy spheres of 7 - 8 mm diam. are imaged by means of LED illumination and backlight reflectors made from thin tantalum foil, with rolled grooves in oblique orientation. In spite of their macroscopic structure the reflectors permit measuring the contours of the oscillating spheres for viscosity and surface tension calculations.

The ability to accurately model the performance of faceted reflectors using software can significantly reduce reliance on prototypes and reduce design costs. This paper discusses the use of software to design and analyze these common reflectors. Simulation results from lamps in reflectors are presented as well as simulation results from selected portions of the faceted reflectors to illustrate the important design principles.

This paper deals with diffractive surfaces used in optical designs: fabricated devices operating over the infrared wavebands are detailed, and the means of manufacture within the Thomson Optronic Group are described.

We review the relatively short history of the ring-toric lenslet. We discuss ring-toric lenslet design and elements that we have fabricated. We illustrate how a focus-error signal (FES) is measured with a ring-toric lens. We have found that the FES slope. a measure of sensitivity to defocus, is higher for the ring-toric lenslets described in this paper than for other techniques, such as the astigmatic and obscuration methods. We measured an FES slope of 0.63 per micron of defocus. The theoretical FES slope is 1.4 micrometers ^-1. Finally, we describe a multi-level DOE fabricated in a single etch using grayscale-photomask technology.

The optical system of the spatially modulated imaging interferometer spectrometer based on the solid dihedral- corner Michelson interferometer is introduced. The model of high throughput imaging interferometer, the modified sampling theorem, the main factors influencing the interferogram modulation, and the beam splitters are discussed. Some experimental results are presented.

High quality lenses have reached a standarad where wavefront tolerances of a few nanometers for transmission and surface figure of individual components are necessary. The standard measuring tool in production is digital interferometry. To satisfy the demands of current and future production quality interferometruc equipment has to provide an overall accuracy below one nanometer under fabrication environment. This is reasonable, especially if "work man's rule" is applied demanding a tolerance/accuracy factor for metrology of ≥10:1. In this paper the limitations on interferometry for material and surface inspection as well as possible improvements are discussed.

The design of a newly developed interferometer is described. This interferometer possesses built-in measuring modes such as: (1) absolute vibration, (2) differential vibration, and (3) distance measuring. The circular polarization interferometer configuration, which gives it its compact size and which has a built-in microscopic imaging system, is detailed. In addition, the mechanical layout of the system which guarantees that all alignment functions are orthogonal to each other is also discussed. Various experimental tests were performed to demonstrate the nanometer resolution and megahertz bandwidth capabilities of this new developed interferometer.

A ray tracing method of simulating interferometers from source to detector using standard optical design software is presented. The advantages, disadvantages and limitations of the method are discussed. The method is applied to the analysis of a phase measuring interferometer designed to test the form of cylindrical mechanical parts and the predicted performance is compared with experimental results.

Laser printers are steadily advancing toward high speed and high resolution. The rotation speed of a polygonal mirror for scanning beams and the data rate for printing are going to be over practical limits. The simultaneous scanning of multiple beams in an array is an effective method to eliminate these problems. The arrayed multiple beams can be generated by devices such as grating, Wollaston prisms, optical fiber array and laser diode array. In any of these devices, the focused arrayed spots have a period of several tens of times larger than the spot diameter. To produce consecutive scan lines using these devices, we proposed the slat scanning method where the arrayed multiple beams are arranged in a slant angle to the scanning direction. For realizing high speed and high resolution in laser printers, the slat scanning method has an advantage in that it is applicable to the case in which the number of beams is large because the multiple beams pass in the vicinity of the scanning plane and the optical aberrations are kept small. We demonstrated high performance printings which are, for example, a print speed of 1,168 mm/sec with a 300 dpi(11.8 dot/mm) print dot density using two beams generated by a Wollaston prism and a print speed of 825.5 mm/sec with a 600 dpi( 23.6 dot/mm) print dot dnesity using five beams generated by a grating, both of which have a wide print width of 431.8 mm(17")

No abstract available.

Laser scan mirror inertia is optimized, varying scan angle and pupil. Resulting geometry is accommodated with a wide angle, small pupil, compound scan lens approach.

Fast microsecond regime beam switching speed, low control power, optical scanner is proposed using thin-film polarization switching devices and passive polarization sensitive beam steering optics.

The characteristics of a polygon scan wheel in a thermal imaging system will be derived from equations involving system optical requirements. Quantities such as scan wheel radius, number of facets, wheel position, and resulting beam wander will be related to system characteristics such as aperture diameter, field of view, and scan efficiency. This will lead to a methodology whereby, for a given set of system requirements, a small set of optimal candidate designs can be generated. The packaging and cost requirements can then determine which candidate is most suitable for the application.

A diffractive optical element is an optical device that utilizes interference and diffraction rather than refraction or reflection, to shape an emerging wavefront. In this talk we will concentrate on the image-forming capabilities of diffractive optics.

Several designs are described that are based on the Offner concentric spectrometer form, with the grating formed on the convex secondary mirror. It is shown that these designs permit the reduction of spectral and spatial distortion to a small (approximately 1%) fraction of a pixel, while also providing a compact form with excellent optical correction. These designs can satisfy the needs and tight calibration requirements of imaging spectrometers for Earth remote sensing, over a broad spectral range from the ultraviolet to the thermal infrared. The practical realization of the designs owes much to the recent development of convex grating fabrication by electron-beam lithography.

The diffraction-based performance limitations of dual waveband infrared systems which incorporate hybrid refractive-diffractive lenses are examined. These limitations must be understood in order to identify the key trade-offs and optimize the design of the diffractive element. The correction of chromatic aberration is considered and the range of conditions under which hybrid solutions offer an advantage is established. A dual waveband hybrid objective lens for an uncooled staring array camera has been designed, manufactured and evaluated.

Using broadband hybrid diffractive/refractive optical system, an athermalized imaging system without special optical and mechanical materials, which is the prototype for space borne small CCD camera, has been designed, evaluated, fabricated and tested. The comparison with conventional optical system is presented. Also, the paper analyzes and discusses the effect of parasite orders diffraction from binary optical element as the regular `stray light' on the image quality (MTF and contrast), and proposes an approach of image processing that can compensate such image quality degradation when broadband hybrid system is used in CCD camera.

The optical properties required of an ophthalmic progressive addition lens, especially the spatial distribution of power and astigmatism, place stringent requirements on its mathematical formulation.

Coddington's equations can be used to eliminate the oblique astigmatic error in the design of ophthalmic lens of spherical or other conicoidal surfaces. But it is difficult to get satisfactory result in the designing of the nonconic aspheric ophthalmic lens. In this paper we present an efficient approach based on optimization of aspheric coefficients, which enables the design program to obtain the minimum aberrations. Many higher order coefficients of aspheric surfaces can easily result in inflection point, which increases the difficulty in manufacturing. We solved the problem by taking it as one of the optimization constraints. The design of nonconic aspheric ophthalmic lens could also make the spectacle lenses well thinner in thickness and well flatter in shape than the design of spherical ophthalmic lens and other conicoidal ophthalmic lens. Damped least square methods are used in our design. Aspherical myopia ophthalmic lenses, aspherical hypermetropic lenses and cataract lenses were designed. Comparisons of design examples' results are given.

This paper discusses techniques used to design and analyze the performance of a new series of modern injection-molded ophthalmic progressive addition lenses (PALs). Although essentially a singlet, the complicated front surface profile of PALs leads to significant design and analysis challenges.

The design of all-reflective cameras for EUV-lithography is an area of lens design that has received attention in the last few years. One important goal is to design a projection camera that meets first-order requirements, image quality requirements, packaging requirements, minimizes the number of mirrors to minimize reflection losses, and that can be successfully manufactured. From the optical design point of view it is desirable to use the best designing tools and concepts to maximize the performance of a projection camera. The optical requirements are so stringent that every little bit of design help is welcome. Examples of some useful optical design ideas are the annular field concept and the concept of annular surfaces. In this paper we discuss how the concept of passive pupil correction can be applied to improve the theoretical performance of an annular or ring field system.

High resolution microlithographic reduction lenses are described. Design examples of projection lenses for i-line exposure lithography and for excimer laser exposure system are presented. The performance evaluation of these designs are also shown.

We discuss the calculation and effect of rigid-body- perturbation misalignment modes in two off-axis extreme- ultraviolet lithography projection cameras: a 4-mirror, 0.14-numerical-aperture (NA) design and a 6-mirror, NA equals 0.2 design. Two sets of modes are considered: (1) modes associated with camera distortion within the design ring field of view and (2) modes associated with camera exit- pupil wavefront 632.8-nm-light metrology data. We show that in the case of the 4-mirror design, a significant distortion misalignment mode coincides with a difficult-to-detect metrology misalignment mode.

For optical systems which are nearly diffraction limited, the Strehl Ratio (SR) is a unique number, which relates the residual wavefront aberration to the diffraction image of a point source. A model is shown in which the optical parameters of an optical system can be specified quantitatively using the SR as a tool to assign a proper weight to each parameter of a merit function composed by the user. Such a method is particularly useful for specifying optics to be used in optical metrology systems where lateral deviations are critical to the precision of the instrument.

The distinguishing features of stereomicroscopes are explained and the two main microscopic types, the Greenough microscope and the Common Main Objective microscope, are illustrated. A 12.5:1 zoom telescope and a high-performance common main objective are presented. With these examples special features of the optical design of high-performance stereomicroscopes are explained.

A novel underwater camera lens design is presented which replaces all interstitial air spaces with a low refractive index liquid to allow pressure compensation of the system in a thinner, safer diving package. The optical design presented overcomes the loss of refractive power by the liquid in a high performance, all spherical, f/1.2 lens, which operates over a 20-degree field of view. A design modulation transfer function of 0.85 is obtained at a typical CCD frequency of 50 lp/mm.

A study has been made on the optical system of Space Solar Telescope with 1 M diameter. The telescope has 0.1' predicted resolution, its optical system consists of a paraboloidal primary mirror, a collimator lens, a imaging lens, and the 2D real time polarizing spectrograph. The optical system of telescope closely reaches the diffraction limited image quality.

The design of high-magnification afocal telescopes that operate simultaneously over very-broad portions of the visible and infrared spectrums presents a significant challenge to the lens designer. Such telescopes are often used with some type of scanning sensor that requires the pupil of the telescope to be located external to the telescope to afford alignment with the sensor's pupil. The afocal telescope described in this paper comprises a single primary mirror and two lenses to form the secondary optics where each lens is made from the same material. The secondary spectrum of the telescope is maintained at a very- low level by arranging the lenses in a Schupmann dialyte form. The telescope can be corrected for axial color and Petzval, and exhibits low residual secondary spectrum by using the presented first-order design equations. In this paper, the design equations are developed, a practical design procedure is presented, and the optical performance of an example telescope is discussed.

The design of infrared objective lenses suitable for uncooled staring focal plane arrays for the longwave infrared are described. In order to minimize the number of lens components which are required, conic surfaces are employed. The emphasis is on cost effective solutions for high volume applications rather than achieving the ultimate in performance. Optical performance data is given for three design examples.

The National Ignition Facility (NIF) is a laser fusion facility being constructed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The neodymium-doped phosphate glass pulsed laser system will produce over 3.5 MJ of laser energy at a fundamental lasing wavelength of 1.053μm(1ω). The final optics assembly contains a pair of crystals (KDP/KD*P) and a focusing lens to convert the light by sum- frequency-mixing to 3ω(λ=0.35μm) and focus 1.8 MJ onto the target. The NIF optical system is large and complex. To give some perspective the NIF building is roughly 200 meters long X 85 meters wide. There are approximately 7500 optical components in the large aperture laser system--lenses, mirrors, polarizers, laser slabs, crystals, and windows--each with a clear aperture greater than 40 cm square. The front-end of the laser system contains more than 8000 smaller (5 - 15 cm) precision laser components. In this paper we will describe the optical system configuration, layout, and general design considerations. We will explain the path of the pulse through the various subsystems. Some of the top-level optical system and sub-system design requirements will be presented.

The National Ignition Facility (NIF), being designed and constructed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, comprises 192 laser beams. The lasing medium is neodymium in phosphate glass with a fundamental frequency (1ω) of 1.053μm. Sum frequency generation in a pair of conversion crystals (KDP/KD*P) will produce 1.8 megajoules of the third harmonic light (3ω or λ= 0.351μm) at the target. The purpose of this paper is to provide the lens design community with the current lens design details of the large powered optics in the Main Laser. This paper describes the lens design configuration and design consideration of the Main Laser. The Main Laser is 123 meters long and includes two spatial filters: one 23.5 meters and one 60 meters. These spatial filters perform crucial beam filtering and relaying functions. We shall describe the significant lens design aspects of these spatial filter lenses which allow them to successfully deliver the appropriate beam characteristic onto the target.

Ghost reflections are a major consideration in the optical design of the National Ignition Facility. The first-order layout (e.g., spacing between components), the lens shape, and the dimensions of the building are strongly affected. In this paper we will describe the principal ghost reflections that drive the system configuration. Several specific examples will be shown to illustrate how dangerous ghost reflections are avoided and stray light concerns are managed.

We have developed a completely new type of optical antialiasing filter that offers both high performance and low cost. This type of filter can sufficiently attenuate all spatial frequencies beyond the CCD detector bandlimit. Antialiasing filters currently in use typically just null out very narrow bands of spatial frequencies.

A novel type of 3D visualization display is presented: a head-mounted projective display (HMPD) with a retro- reflective projection screen conforming to the environment. Application to 3D medical visualization is specifically considered. The imaging concept of the HMPD is modeled and compared to that of a conventional head-mounted display (HMD) for stereo-pair images generation. The HMPD presents several advantages compared to HMDs and other 3D visualization techniques.

For airborne operations many type of sensors are required for day vision, night vision and ranging purposes. These sensors are required to perform exceedingly well and must be extremely compact and lightweight. A laser range fmder cum thermal imager is one such sensor which is required for airborne applications to range the targets in night time. Although, it will be more appropriate to use C02 laser range fmder in this sensor which operates at 10.6 tm, it is not used because of it's higher weight and limited life period. Nd: YAG laser range fmder operating at 1.06 m is always preferred for ranging the targets. In this paper we have described an integrated laser range fmder cum dual magnification thermal imager which utilises Nd: YAG laser range fmder for ranging the target at 1 .06 tm.. The system is extremely compact as a result of unique optical layout in which there is only one common front channel for receiver as well as collimator of laser range fmder and thermal imager. Two Zinc Sulfide lenses in front of the system acts as a 'common front channel' for collimator as well as receiver of Nd : YAG laser range finder working at 1.06 pm and a dual magnification thermal imager working in 8 to 12 im region. The system provides a versatile approach to utilize Nd :YAG laser range finder operating at 1 .06 im for ranging of targets during night time. Additionally, Binary optics has been utilized to design dual magnification thermal imager which not only improved the performance of the thermal imager but also helped in making the system light weight and compact as total number of lenses required for the system has reduced drastically.

Optical material that is described by a line on the glass map, as opposed to the point describing homogeneous material, promises new types of optical design applications of improved performance. These will incorporate lenses of gradient refractive material with either axial or radial profiles. These materials open up the designer's available parameter space to include a controlled gradient in both index and dispersion. The availability of prescribable GRIN material allows unusual lens geometries that will be introduced and illustrated. The range of applications for axial and radial GRIN lenses overlap but are not identical. Prescribable radial GRIN material has a much broader range of applications. The main subject of this talk will be the fusion/diffusion process used to produce macro radial and axial GRIN material. This process is simple, repeatable, and applicable to mass production for both geometries. The advantage of GRIN technology and its availability in commercial lens design programs provides the opportunity to push performance and reduce cost.

Researchers and lens designers have established the optical performance benefits of gradient-index (GRIN) optics. Refractive index gradient attributes such as depth, shape, and total index change determine the lens aberrations and in some cases the first-order system properties. Gradient-index designs are usually specified by an index polynomial: however, the most widely used index representations do not correlate with the ion exchange fabrication process used to make GRIN glass. A design-for-manufacture process has been developed which uses ion exchange modeling integrated with optical design software to design manufacturable GRIN lenses. This paper introduces time varying boundary condition (TVBC) diffusion as a useful technique for improving the performance of manufacturable gradient lenses. The implementation of TVBC diffusion in OSLO^TM lens design software as a user-defined gradient is detailed and some unique aspects of manufacturable index profiles are pointed out in conjunction with design examples. Both axial and radial gradient designs show significant improvement with an increase in the number of TVBC diffusion steps. Finally, an experimental index profile is shown to reasonably match the TVBC diffusion calculated profile.

LightPath has continued efforts to improve the range of uses for GRADIUM^TM glass. New glass lines as well as new geometries have been demonstrated. LightPath continues to work with software vendors to improve ease-of-use. At the 1998 CLEO, a lab sample of a transverse gradient (a.k.a. `biaxial') was shown. New products are expected soon. Laboratory work has demonstrated the viability of other glass families. A GTi (GRADIUM Titania) family has been developed as well as a GSI (GRADIUM Spectrally Invariant) material, based on US Patent #5,689,374, also for use as an achromatic transverse gradient. The new GLaK glass line has one existing profile currently ready and will be publicly released this summer. Considerable efforts have also been made at improving the characterization of GRADIUM glasses, including more accurate profile measurements and investigations of appropriate techniques for modeling the dispersion. The improved accuracy is required for apochromatic systems. Finally, as a part of the ongoing process improvement effort, LightPath has formed a strategic partnership with Hikari glass. This relation ship will allow LightPath to have better control over the incoming glass supply and have a glass supply that is better suited for production of GRADIUM glasses. This change will alter the existing profiles; redefinitions will be available this summer.

Designing with axial-gradient materials can be a complicated task. The difficulties range from the speed of ray-tracing codes and the mechanics of specifying the material and appropriate variables to selecting the best gradient and orientation rom a set of fixed profiles. We propose a simple methodology for designing with axial-gradient glasses in modern ray-tracing codes. The first step is to determine locations where the gradient can be useful. This decision may be made by probing a design with aspheres or by analysis of the design to decide what needs to be corrected. The second step is to modify the design for appropriate base materials. GRADIUM^TM lenses act as correctors in the optical system and the first-order optical properties still must be controlled in the normal manner. The third step is to design the optimal gradient for the applications. While the designer will only have the option of designing the gradient for actual use in a very limited set of cases, understanding the shape of the ideal gradient will allow the designer to select the profile and orientation that most closely matches the ideal. Then the designers can work on best implementing the design and fine-tuning the design. Tolerancing and preparation of the GRADIUM lens print require only a few additional steps and understanding of how the material is fabricated. For example, the maximum profile thickness is nominal and may not correspond to the physical dimensions of a blank, such as when a blank is pre- thinned.

Recently we have reported on the influence of the electron beam on As₂S₃ thin films. However, the sensitivity of the As_xSe_100-x thin films with different compositions has not been investigated. Here we report on our measurement of the index change of As_xSe_100-x thin films for the construction of the graded index optical components.

This paper treats three aspects of construction and use of deformable mirror devices developed at National Optics Institute: technology, optics configuration (functional equations), and diffraction (Fourier analysis).

We report on design, fabrication and characterization of channel waveguides, star couplers, gratings and dense wavelength division multiplexers imprinted by an ultraviolet lamp and an excimer laser in polyglass on silicon prepared by a low temperature sol-gel process.

We simulate and compare optical transmission efficiencies, throughputs and interconnection lengths of free-space and POF-based guided-wave multi-chip-module optical interconnection systems for different types of microcavity emitters.

We have developed an integrated system for laser beam deflection, using a monolithic silica on silicon structure including microlenses and an electromechanical actuator. The scanner shows a maximum deflection angle of +/- 5 degree(s) for a static Voltage of about 130 V or continuous scanning of a field of 20 degree(s) for a 45 V signal at the resonance frequency. The device is fabricated by a surface micromachining process of a silica layer on silicon substrate with no subsequent assembling steps involved.

This paper will discuss the usefulness of a lens manufacturing database to the optical designer. Manufacturing statistics can readily be computed to assist with tolerancing studies. This tool can easily report manufactured element parameters to assist with manufacturing compensation models prior to lens assembly.

The surface of a spinning liquid takes the shape of a paraboloid that can be used as a reflecting mirror. Liquid mirrors have many characteristics that make them useful for optical applications: low costs, large sizes, excellent optical qualities, possibility of very high or very low numerical apertures, low scattered light, etc... The largest mirror built so far has a diameter of 3.7 meters. The largest mirror that has been extensively tested has a diameter of 2.5 meters. Interferometric tests show that it is diffraction limited. We discuss several technical issues related to liquid mirrors. A handful of liquid mirrors have now been built that are used for scientific work. We briefly discuss a practical application of liquid mirrors: We built and tested a telecentric f-θ 3D scanner that uses a liquid mirror as its objective. The prototype has a stand- off distance of 1.5 meters, a scan length up to 1 meter (telecentric), a depth of view of 1 meter and a relative depth resolution of 1 mm or less. The design is based on the auto-synchronized scanner and is f-(theta) corrected for field scanning distortion. We therefore claim that the liquid mirror technology gives a new tool to the optical designer.

Proper tolerance control is very important in controlling product performance. This study develops a statistical tolerancing system. This system enables the quantitative analysis of optical performance, productivity, and complex tolerance sensitivity prior to manufacturing. In this paper, we report on the development of the Mass-Product Simulation System and the Complex Sensitivity Analysis System both based on Monte-Carlo methods. Furthermore, we report reliability results based on simulations.

The International Optical Design Conference traditionally includes one or more lens design problems for members of the optical design community to consider. This year, the design problem consists of designing a solid glass lens with no intervening air spaces between the first and last surfaces of the lens. This paper summarizes the design solutions submitted, highlights the best designs and considers some interesting points brought to light as a result of the endeavor.

No abstract available.

A simple reflective light pipe, formed from a cylindrical tube with an external reflective coating and a small central aperture, can be a highly efficient optical element for collecting light from molecular scattering processes along the path of a laser beam. When the laser beam is co-linear with the axis of the light pipe, scattered light from any location along the interaction region (near the pipe axis) re-images repeatedly to another location along the axis of the pipe. This semi-imaging property of the light pipe permits a large fraction of the total scattered light to re- image along the entire length of the interaction region. If one observes through the small central aperture, scattered light from the single segment of the laser beam in view appears to come from all the locations along the interaction length, as well as from the single segment. In this manner, one can have the advantage of collecting scattered light from a small segment (and thus onto a small detector), while observing an effective interaction length that is many times longer than the segment. Measurements from practical light pipes confirm effective gains of about 10X with light pipes a few centimeters long (Effective gain is defined as the ratio of light collected with the light pipe divided by the light collected from a direct image of the beam using the collection optics).

The effectiveness of global optimizers for non-zoomed lenses has been steadily improving, but until recently their application to zoom lens design has been less successful. Although some methods have been able to make minor improvements to initial design forms, the algorithms have not consistently discovered new solutions with different group power distributions in a single run. In many cases, the difficulty appears related to how effective focal length (EFL) is controlled across zoom positions. Improvements made to the Global Synthesis^TM (GS) algorithm in Code V^TM, together with a revised strategy for controlling the EFL via weighted constraints, have significantly improved the ability of GS to discover distinct zoom lens solutions, including those with different group powers. We offer a plausible explanation for the success of these changes, and we discuss an example zoom lens design problem based on a 2-group, 7-element patent design.