We outline a collection of technological challenges in the design of wearable computers with a focus on one of the most desirable form-factors, the wrist watch. We describe our experience with building three generations of wrist watch computers. We built these research prototypes as platforms to investigate the fundamental limitations of wearable computing. Results of our investigations are presented in the form of challenges that have been overcome and those that still remain.

Capabilities required for network centric operation require significant changes in the Human System Interface (HSI) of existing aircraft. The current controls and displays do not provide the capability needed for network centric operations. Initially, the network centric concept was that the aircrew members would pull the information they needed from the network. Evaluation of existing controls and displays, aircraft data buses, communications including data links, and mission planning determined that not only did the existing hardware and software not provide the needed capability, the aircrew members would need time critical information from other nodes in the network pushed to their aircraft and “smart” displays.

There is an ever increasing need for lightweight, flexible, inexpensive integrated systems encompassing displays, sensors, computers, and other electronics to provide unprecedented information capability to a broad range of war-fighters. During the next few years, a team of experts will be engaged in an intensive development program pursuing a two-pronged goal: (1) to integrate and fabricate reflective and emissive systems such as organic light emitting devices on flexible substrates including plastics, and (2) to develop materials and structural platforms that allow flexible backplane electronics to be integrated with ancillaries and display components, as well as to be mass-produced economically. An underlying theme of this effort continues to be leveraging emerging processing techniques, for example a-Si and poly-Si thin film transistor (TFT) technologies, but also advanced micro-contact pattern transfer techniques for producing low cost product with molecular structures for combined communication and electronic appliances. The initial technology integration target is a 4” diagonal active matrix QVGA display on conformal plastic substrates. These advanced developments will be realized through a unique collaborative effort between the U.S. Army, Arizona State University (ASU) in close collaboration with its academic partners, and industry partners, who are united in our shared commitment to optimize the necessary production technologies for large area/large scale, low cost, cutting-edge display products and state-of-the-art manufacturing capabilities. The newly formed Flexible Display Center (FDC) at Arizona State University provides a one-of-a-kind environment fully dedicated to fulfill the major technical challenges not addressed by display manufacturers producing glass-based flat panel displays.

Current Command and Control (C2) situations have necessitated not only the requirement for a larger and higher resolution display system, but also a propitious interactive solution that will enable warfighters to execute their mission critical tasks effectively. They are constantly faced with making key decisions utilizing massive amounts of data and information, which is not only dynamic, but originating from various sources including military applications, sensors, databases, live satellite input, and video feeds. In addition, the portability and usability of such a system are both at a premium. The decision maker's role must not to be impaired by the mechanics of utilizing the tool, but one that will facilitate better information management and an improved situational awareness to fulfill his/her mission. The Advanced Displays and Intelligent Interfaces (ADII) team at the Air Force Research Laboratory's Information Directorate (AFRL/IF) recognizes the challenges that our warfighters encounter, and based on their evaluations and feedback, has designed, implemented, deployed, and transitioned several evolutionary versions of the Interactive DataWall (IDW). The IDW is a collaborative, contiguous, large display solution equipped with multi-modal methods of interaction, and the ability to receive multiple sources of data in real time.

Every electronic display device will degrade. When has it degraded to the point of not being acceptable? The traditional approach to display performance evaluation is to view a test pattern, in which results depend upon the knowledge and skill of the viewer. The alternative is to undergo rigorous laboratory analysis with very expensive measuring equipment. There is a need for a quick and easy means to confirm that display performance is suitable for the task at hand without the unknowns and variations in visual interpretation. Video Instruments has developed this capability. Now that displays are computer compatible, it is simple to insert test stimuli in software form, providing a reference image without having to disconnect equipment and place it on a laboratory bench. A variety of test patterns can be presented, but there remains the question of interpretation. Video Instruments has solved this problem by providing carefully crafted symbology to be interpreted. The viewer then enters into the computer what that symbology is, confirming that the computer based system is operating properly, that through transmission and display a suitable image is being presented, that viewing conditions are acceptable, and that the viewer has the abiity to discern critical information.

Digital displays will play a critical role in providing a common battlespace picture whether in the aircraft cockpit, command and control facility or carried by ground troops. Advanced display technologies will be key to providing our warfighters with needed information. The purpose of the Display Characterization Facility at Wright-Patterson AFB is to provide quantitative performance data on current and upcoming display technologies and evaluate these technologies for specific Air Force applications. This requires an understanding not only of the specific display technology and its capabilities and limitations but also the capabilities and limitations of the human visual system, the tasks to be performed and characteristics of the environment which may affect the operator-display interaction. To this end, the Display Characterization Laboratory conducts both display hardware measurements and assessments of human performance using the displays under expected environmental conditions. Common display measurements are described along with their implications for operator visual performance.

The different types of mobile visual communication modes and the types of displays needed in cellular handsets are explored. The well-known 2-way video conferencing is only one of the possible modes. Some modes are already supported on current handsets while others need the arrival of advanced network capabilities to be supported. Displays for devices that support these visual communication modes need to deliver the required visual experience. Over the last 20 years the display has grown in size while the rest of the handset has shrunk. However, the display is still not large enough - the processor performance and network capabilities continue to outstrip the display ability. This makes the display a bottleneck. This paper will explore potential solutions to a small large image on a small handset.

As part of the Advanced Mission Computer and Displays program, Boeing was tasked with developing and incorporating an 8x10 Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Display (AMLCD) into the Aft Crew Station of the F/A-18 F Aircraft. In order to meet cost and technical requirements, a commercial AMLCD panel was selected and ruggedized to meet the F/A-18 war fighter environment. The 8x10 AMPD was subjected to Military Standard Environmental testing as well as Optical testing to requirements based on lessons learned from previous display activities and has subsequently passed those tests. Developmental Flight Testing of the 8x10 AMPD was an unprecedented success and resulted in numerous compliments from F/A-18F Aircrew. The display is currently transitioning from Engineering, Manufacturing and Development to Low Rate Initial Production.

Converting the pilot's flight bag information from paper to electronic media is being performed routinely by commercial airlines for use with an on-board PC. This concept is now being further advanced with a new class of electronic flight bags (EFB) recently put into commercial operation which interface directly with major on-board avionics systems and has its own dedicated panel mounted display. This display combines flight bag information with real time aircraft performance and maintenance data. This concept of an integrated EFB which is now being used by the commercial airlines as a level 1 certified system, needs to be explored for military applications. This paper describes a system which contains all the attributes of an Electronic Flight Bag with the addition of interfaces which are linked to military aircraft missions such as those for tankers, cargo haulers, search and rescue and maritime aircraft as well as GATM requirements. The adaptation of the integrated EFB to meet these military requirements is then discussed.

The military display market is analyzed in terms of one of its segments: helicopter displays. Parameters requiring special consideration, to include luminance ranges, contrast ratio, viewing angles, and chromaticity coordinates, are examined. Performance requirements for rotary-wing displays relative to several premier applications are summarized. Display sizes having aggregate defense applications of 5,000 units or greater and having DoD applications across 10 or more platforms, are tabulated. The issue of size commonality is addressed where distribution of active area sizes across helicopter platforms, individually, in groups of two through nine, and ten or greater, is illustrated. Rotary-wing displays are also analyzed by technology, where total quantities of such displays are broken out into CRT, LCD, AMLCD, EM, LED, Incandescent, Plasma and TFEL percentages. Custom, versus Rugged commercial, versus commercial off-the-shelf designs are contrasted. High and low information content designs are identified. Displays for several high-profile military helicopter programs are discussed, to include both technical specifications and program history. The military display market study is summarized with breakouts for the helicopter market segment. Our defense-wide study as of March 2004 has documented 1,015,494 direct view and virtual image displays distributed across 1,181 display sizes and 503 weapon systems. Helicopter displays account for 67,472 displays (just 6.6% of DoD total) and comprise 83 sizes (7.0% of total DoD) in 76 platforms (15.1% of total DoD). Some 47.6% of these rotary-wing applications involve low information content displays comprising just a few characters in one color; however, as per fixed-wing aircraft, the predominant instantiation involves higher information content units capable of showing changeable graphics, color and video.

American Panel Corporation (APC) is the world's leader of customized AMLCD's for use in all rugged applications including aircraft, and ground vehicles. Previously, the AMLCD that has been designed and manufactured to APC specification by LG.Philips LCD in South Korea required the addition of a heater, EMI shield, and temperature sensors in order to meet the demands of the cockpit and tank. APC now introduces the first AMLCD products in which the heater, EMI shield, and temperature sensors are integrated into the AMLCD itself.

Application of OLED displays in military applications could have a significant long-term impact for future warfighters in the form of size, weight, power, and usability. This paper provides an overview of some preliminary prototyping work performed under contract with the United States Displays Consortium and an overview of the performance testing performed.

Rugate technology is a powerful and flexible technique, particularly suited to Head-Up Display, HUD combiners and display visors. The thin film coating, applied to a combiner surface, reflects the symbology from a HUD, while simultaneously allowing a clear view through the combiner to the outside world. The coating is colour selective, only reflecting a narrow band of green coincident with the P53 display phosphor. It exhibits major advantages compared to other HUD technologies. Namely, reflects only CRT wavelengths, transmits the outside world with high efficiency and minimal colouration, has high photopic transmission, displays brightness insensitive to head movement, has wide angular response, weighs approximately half that of equivalent holographic combiners and offers a lower cost solution.

Head Up Display [HUD] is highly precise line replaceable unit {LRU} located in aircraft cockpit. This flight critical LRU is required to display data / information related to flight, navigation and weapon aiming. Weapon aiming is performed with reference to field axis of the HUD. The orientation of field axis, for a given cockpit installation, is normally defined precisely with respect to fore and aft reference line [FRL] of the aircraft. A precision test setup has been developed to evaluate HUD prior to its installation in the cockpit. It is significant that setup is calibrated inclusive of mounting tray. Head up display units are subsequently replaced within the tray for evaluation and clearance. This paper describes the salient features of the test setup along with the calibration process. Spatial and spectral line widths of head up display, along with other parameters, are measured accurately using the setup. It is well established to measure the spectral line width with the help of spectra-photometer. However, using the photometer, a simple method is proposed and utilized for the measurement of spatial line width.

The development of a liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS) projector based Head-Up Display (HUD) is nearing completion and the first products are being readied for Flight Test. Rockwell Collins Flight Dynamics (RCFD) has reported previously on the designs, performance requirements, and measured performance of two prototype versions, as well as the potential benefits of the technology and the technical challenges remaining. This paper reviews some of the key performance requirements, enabling technologies, and preliminary measured results from the first pre-production units. There is also a comparison of the LCOS projector based HUD to two evolving digital HUD technologies.

Since their introduction more than forty years ago by BAE Systems, Head up Displays have relied on the Cathode Ray Tube as their image source. The progression of electronic technology in recent years has prompted the search for an alternative to the tube as the primary image source. Until very recently, this work has centred on the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD). These are relatively inefficient devices, whether they be transmissive or reflective and this low efficiency therefore requires a very intense source of light to illuminate them. The difficulty of packaging, achieving a high reliability and a long life seemed to limit the application of the Laser as the illumination source. However with an innovative Laser illuminator working with the highly efficient DMD the author describes a 'next generation' HUD (Head Up Display) design.

In this paper we describe the applications and status of OLED technology to produce displays ideally suited for mobile applications. In particular, we focus on phosphorescent OLED (PHOLED) technology to reduce display power consumption and flexible OLED (FOLED) technology to reduce the display thickness and weight. We show that PHOLED displays can consume less power than an equivalent backlit AMLCD, and have excellent visual performance characteristics which make these displays highly desirable for portable communication devices. We will then describe an example of a unique communication device, a Universal Communication Device (UCD), based on flexible PHOLED technology, to produce a powerful communication device with a low power consumption and a light weight and very portable form factor. This device, enabled by a roll-out phosphorescent active-matrix display fabricated on a metallic or plastic substrate, is of great interest for a range of both consumer and military products.

We discuss the state of the art of the bistable reflective cholesteric liquid crystal display technology. Numerous applications from low resolutions signs, to medium resolution instrumentation type displays, and high resolution electronic books are discussed. Different modes of the technology are discussed as being viable for the respective display applications. Special emphasis is paid to electronic book applications.

Multi-layer displays suffer from Moire interference formed between the regular colour filters and the black matrix present on each layer. This interference can be abated by spatially filtering the image on the rear layer. A function was derived and tested that relates the bi-directional transmission distribution function of a spatial filter and its distance to the effective point spread function acting on an image. This was then applied to an image layer in a numerical model of the interference which was compared against measurements. Finally a metric, based on the square root integral, was developed that relates the distortion to the image in terms of moire interference and the spatial filtering of the rear layer to the human visual system.

In this paper, a real-time incoherent 3D imaging and display system using the modified triangular interferometer is optically implemented. The incoherent holographic system based-on this modified triangular interferometer employs the superposition of Fresnel zone patterns, in which the respective positions and intensities of the 3D object points are uniquely encoded and from this system the complex holograms without bias and conjugate images for the 3D object can be obtained. In addition, the real and imaginary parts of a complex hologram are obtained by subtracting and adding two hologram patterns. Then, illuminating them coherently and recombining the light passing through the transparencies by the use of the beam splitter allows the complex addition to be performed. Then, the desired 3D image is reconstructed through Fresnel diffraction. From some experiments with a 3D object of “dies”, it is found that the incoherent 3D imaging and display system without the bias and conjugate image can be optically implemented in real-time by using a modified triangular interferometer.

Amorphous silicon TFT technology continues to show promise for fabricating large area high resolution flexible AM OLED displays. This paper describes the recent progress in the flexible AM OLED development efforts at Honeywell since our publication in this conference's proceedings in 2003, describing the feasibility of fabricating a 64x64 pixel AM OLED on a flexible plastic substrate. In this paper we describe the design, and fabrication of a 160x160(x3) pixel AM OLED on a flexible plastic substrate with an equivalent 80cgpi resolution. Flexibility characteristics of the fabricated displays are discussed. Further advances and improvements required for extending the size and resolution of flexible AM OLED displays are discussed.

This paper explores the possibility of increasing the data rates on existing MIL-STD-1553 networks beyond its current one megabit per second rate. A combination of empirical and theoretical methods is used in predicting the capacity of a MIL-STD-1553 network. The analysis begins with an assessment of the usable bandwidth in a 1553 network followed by the development of models to predict signal-to-noise ratios based on a transmit signal level that meets the emissions limits of MIL-STD-461 and a noise level that is representative of a real 1553 system. This paper presents the theoretical capacity limits for several 1553 network configurations. The results of the analysis predict that the theoretical capacity within a legacy MIL-STD-1553 system is expected to be several hundred megabits per second. The achievable rate depends on network configuration and usable bandwidth. Methods of approaching these theoretical capacity limits is not discussed in this paper, rather, this paper provides a framework and a baseline for the analysis of higher data rates over legacy MIL-STD-1553 networks.

We demonstrate arrays of light guides that are fabricated in sheets and laminated together to form tapered plastic fiber optic bundles that can be used to produce large seamlessly tiled displays.

Global computer modeling of display systems, based on Radiometric Ray Tracing (R²T), has been proposed, for determining radiometric (photometric) quantities in phase-space, including radiance (luminance) which represents phase-space density. Verification with experiment is also discussed.

D-ILA modulators and projectors based on LCOS (liquid crystal on silicon) technology have been developed. The compact reflection-mode modulators have resolution of up to 3840 x 2048 pixels for projection display applications including simulation and visualization. The Evans and Sutherland VistaView head tracked area of interest system has evolved from 1992 to incorporate many display improvements. The paper reviews D-ILA technology and the incorporation of D-ILA projectors into the VistaView system.

Many R&D sectors have a growing need to display more pixels in digital displays, as data, image size and supercomputer output continue to increase. This demand has been met, within the High Performance Computing (HPC) community, by tiling multiple projected images into a composite image of larger pixel capacity and display area. However problems of color and illumination non-uniformities between projectors reduce the perceptual quality of the composite image and may limit its utility in other applications. In this paper we review such displays in the context of their motivating applications from Computational Science and Engineering (CS&E). That community is using 25-30 Mega-pixel displays and is close to implementing 50-100 Mega-pixel systems, albeit with reduced image quality. We present further results characterizing our compact, tiled projector array. The system uses a common light source with a single set of dichroic filters to reduce image non-uniformities. Photometric variations between projectors are lowered by individually tuning contrast, brightness or gamma curves of the D-ILA chips, allowing near seamless tiling of the projected images. We report photometric measurements characterizing the display and its optical losses. The total image capacity for a 3 x 1 array is 3840 by 1024 pixels at a resolution of 80 dpi. Increases, beyond 50-100 Mega-pixels are possible with next-generation D-ILA chips in production at QXGA (2k x 1.5k) native resolution and laboratory demonstration of QHDTV (3.8k x 2k). Advances in newer technologies may permit the manufacture of high pixel density and high capacity displays.

No Abstract Available.

Recent enhancements in modelling methods enable the prediction of a fluid's interaction with a structure, whilst simultaneously capturing the response of the structure. This paper describes the application of these techniques to the modelling of birdstrikes on HUDs. The techniques are also applicable to birdstrike on HMDs and other aircraft structures.

The wrist watch needs an upgrade. Recent advances in optoelectronics, microelectronics, and communication theory have established a technology base that now make the multimedia Dick Tracy watch attainable during the next decade. As a first step towards stuffing the functionality of an entire personnel computer (PC) and television receiver under a watch face, we have set a goal of providing wrist video capability to warfighters. Commercial sector work on the wrist form factor already includes all the functionality of a personal digital assistant (PDA) and full PC operating system. Our strategy is to leverage these commercial developments. In this paper we describe our use of a 2.2 in. diagonal color active matrix light emitting diode (AMOLED) device as a wrist-mounted display (WMD) to present either full motion video or computer generated graphical image formats.

The Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle (EFV) is typical of a new generation of Military vehicle. These new vehicles utilise information technology to provide substantial force multiplier and enhanced survival gains for the Marines. Larger, high performance displays with an integral computing capability are an essential element of these new systems. This paper reports on the development of an 18.1” display for the EFV. We describe the functionality, construction and performance of a “smart display” that utilises COTS components adapted to a severe ground-mobile environment, from concept to prototype test and delivery. We also indicate design enhancements that will take this system into volume production with maximized performance and minimised obsolescence risk for a system that is likely to evolve over a long operational lifespan.

When characterizing or calibrating electronic displays, the technical staff needs to understand the capabilities and limitations of the measuring instrumentation used. Once these parameters are established, the metrologist can make meaningful decisions about the appropriateness of the instrument, identify potential errors, and remedy solutions if applicable. Several tools are introduced to facilitate the assessment of display measurement systems: the display measurement assessment standard (DMATS), the gamut assessment standard (GAS) and several stray-light elimination tools. Employing these tools, one can better understand the measurement capabilities of the facility and possibly make desired improvements.

Platform performance and safety are dependent on operator situational awareness. This is traditionally achieved via visual and audio displays but an intuitive alternative is the tactile display. A familiar tactile display is the vibrating alert function of the mobile telephone but more complex tactile display applications have been demonstrated in a number of scenarios, including fixed and rotary wing aircraft, high-speed boats, diving, and assisting the visually impaired. The major applications include orientation, navigation, and communication. A recent NATO Research & Technology Organisation symposium on spatial disorientation (La Coruna, Spain, 2002) stated that; 'The most important advance of recent years with the potential to combat spatial disorientation has been the use of tactile stimuli to give information on spatial orientation'.

A design for a low cost, wide field, low profile, light weight, full color, stereoscopic, see-through eyewear display called the personal viewer (PV) is presented. After a brief review of current methods and popular products, the principles of operation of the personal viewer are presented and several of the difficulties faced in implementation are discussed. Specifically, imaging is accomplished by covering each eye with a transparent semi-reflective half-ellipsoid, approximately 6cm in diameter and 7cm in length, with its lower focus at the user pupil and the upper focus at a two-axis scanner just above the user's brow. A 1mm collimated optical beam is directed onto the scanner mirror, from which a raster pattern is projected onto the inside surface of the ellipsoid and reflected into the user's pupil. The perceived source of the beam is the point of reflection, providing a 120 degree field breadth at each eye with a 60 degree overlap of the right and left fields where stereo fusion is available. Finally, a reduced bandwidth teleoperation support architecture is described where orientation sensors on the viewer control a dynamic mapping of the viewer display space onto a 360 degree image in response to user head motion.