This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 6960, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction, and the Conference Committee listing.

The Hayabusa spacecraft rendezvoused with the asteroid Itokawa in 2005 after the powered flight in the deep space by the μ10 cathode-less electron cyclotron resonance ion engines. Though the spacecraft was seriously damaged after the successful soft-landing and lift-off, the xenon cold gas jets from the ion engines rescued it. New attitude stabilization method using a single reaction wheel, the ion beam jets, and the photon pressure was established and enabled the homeward journey from April 2007 aiming the Earth return on 2010. The total accumulated operational time of the ion engines reaches 31,400 hours at the end of 2007. One of four thrusters achieved 13,400-hour space operation.

In August 2007, the engineering model of the Rendezvous Lidar System (RLS) was tested at the Sensor Test Range Facility that has been developed at NASA Langley Research Center for the calibration and characterization of 3-D imaging sensors. The three-dimensional test pattern used in this characterization is suitable for an empirical verification of the resolving capability of a lidar for both mid-range terminal rendezvous and hazard avoidance landing. The results of the RLS lidar measurements are reported and compared with image frames generated by a lidar simulator with an Effective Instantaneous Field of View (EIFOV) consistent with the actual scanning time-of-flight lidar specifications. These full-scale tests demonstrated the resolving capability of the lidar under static testing conditions. In landing operations, even though the lidar has a very short exposure time on a per-pulse basis, the dynamic motion of a lander spacecraft with respect to the landing site will cause pulse-to-pulse imaging distortion. MDA, Optech, and NGC Aerospace have teamed together to resolve this issue using motion compensation (platform stabilization) and motion correction (platform residual correction) techniques. Platform stabilization permits images with homogenous density to be generated so that no safe landing sites will be missed; platform residual errors that are not prevented by this stabilization are then corrected in the measurement data prior to map generation. The results of recent developments in platform stabilization and motion correction are reported and discussed in the context of total imaging error budget.

Modern miniaturization technologies allow realization of satellites at very low masses. For the example of the pico-satellite UWE-1 (University Würzburg's Experimental satellite), design details for such spacecrafts with at a mass below 1 kg will be discussed. UWE-1 was launched in 2005 in order to optimize Internet Protocol parameters in adaptation to the measured space environment, specifically at significant delays and at higher noise levels compared to terrestrial links. Such miniaturization often limits the power and data transmission resources, and thus the achievable performance. Therefore concepts for formations of small satellites have been developed, where multiple pico-satellites complement each other in swarms to realize a fault-tolerant, robust system. Here observations take advantage of large baselines between the sensors placed on the different satellites. Thus, due to the different viewing angles, even three-dimensional structures can be indentified. The limited implementation costs for pico-satellites encourage strategies to store such pico-satellites for situations, when reconnaissance data are required quickly, as in case of disasters, like earthquakes, floodings, and forest fires.

Over the next decades, NASA's planned solar system exploration missions are targeting planets, moons and small bodies, where spacecraft would be expected to encounter diverse extreme environmental (EE) conditions throughout their mission phases. These EE conditions are often coupled. For instance, near the surface of Venus and in the deep atmospheres of giant planets, probes would experience high temperatures and pressures. In the Jovian system low temperatures are coupled with high radiation. Other environments include thermal cycling, and corrosion. Mission operations could also introduce extreme conditions, due to atmospheric entry heat flux and deceleration. Some of these EE conditions are not unique to space missions; they can be encountered by terrestrial assets from the fields of defense, oil and gas, aerospace, and automotive industries. In this paper we outline the findings of NASA's Extreme Environments Study Team, including discussions on state of the art and emerging capabilities related to environmental protection, tolerance and operations in EEs. We will also highlight cross cutting EE mitigation technologies, for example, between high g-load tolerant impactors for Europa and instrumented projectiles on Earth; high temperature electronics sensors on Jupiter deep probes and sensors inside jet engines; and pressure vessel technologies for Venus probes and sea bottom monitors. We will argue that synergistic development programs between these fields could be highly beneficial and cost effective for the various agencies and industries. Some of these environments, however, are specific to space and thus the related technology developments should be spearheaded by NASA with collaboration from industry and academia.

We present some highlights from SMART-1's science and technology payload, and the relevance of SMART-1 results and lessons for future lunar exploration. SMART-1 is the first ESA mission that reached the Moon. It is the first of Small Missions for Advanced Research and Technology. It has fulfilled its technology objectives to demonstrate Solar Electric Primary Propulsion (SEP) and to test new technologies for spacecraft and instruments. After a 15-month cruise with primary SEP and successful technology demonstration, the SMART-1 science and exploration phase, provided first lunar orbit results. The mission has been extended one year and ended with an impact on 3 September 2006.

We discuss the charter and activities of the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG), and give an update from the related ILEWG task groups. We discuss the different rationale and technology roadmap for Moon exploration, as debated in previous ILEWG conferences. The Technology rationale includes: 1) The advancement of instrumentation: 2) Technologies in robotic and human exploration 3) Moon-Mars Exploration can inspire solutions to global Earth sustained development. We finally discuss a possible roadmap for development of technologies necessary for Moon and Mars exploration.

We review in the context of latest lunar results the case for future lunar landers and sample returns, as discussed by various ILEWG science and technology task groups, addressing: - ESA Lunar Polar Lander Study (LES3) - A generic lander platform that can be adapted to sample return or to a lunar lander /rover fetcher. - New Science opportunities from lunar landers - Clues on mantle/lower crust (South Pole Aitken Basin), polar ice, cometary/meteoritic record - Technology demonstration preparation for Mars sample return - Technology demonstrator for lunar ascent vehicle, Earth reentry, and human return vehicle Technologies that can be developed for lunar sample return missions: entry airless bodies, Descent and landing, robotics, Instruments, Sample acquisition, Return and Earth reentry.

Future planetary exploration of the outer satellites of the Solar System will require higher levels of onboard automation, including autonomous determination of sites where the probability of significant scientific findings is highest. Generally, the level of needed automation is heavily influenced by the distance between Earth and the robotic explorer(s) (e.g. spacecraft(s), rover(s), and balloon(s)). Therefore, planning missions to the outer satellites mandates the analysis, design and integration within the mission architecture of semi- and/or completely autonomous intelligence systems. Such systems should (1) include software packages that enable fully automated and comprehensive identification, characterization, and quantification of feature information within an operational region with subsequent target prioritization and selection for close-up reexamination; and (2) integrate existing information with acquired, "in transit" spatial and temporal sensor data to automatically perform intelligent planetary reconnaissance, which includes identification of sites with the highest potential to yield significant geological and astrobiological information. In this paper we review and compare some of the available Artificial Intelligence (AI) schemes and their adaptation to the problem of designing expert systems for onboard-based, autonomous science to be performed in the course of outer satellites exploration. More specifically, the fuzzy-logic framework proposed is analyzed in some details to show the effectiveness of such a scheme when applied to the problem of designing expert systems capable of identifying and further exploring regions on Titan and/or Enceladus that have the highest potential to yield evidence for past or present life. Based on available information (e.g., Cassini data), the current knowledge and understanding of Titan and Enceladus environments is evaluated to define a path for the design of a fuzzy-based system capable of reasoning over collected data and capable of providing the inference required to autonomously optimize future outer satellites explorations.

In this paper, a global control structure for autonomous robotic aircraft is proposed. The main objective of this advanced control structure is to provide the unmanned aircraft with the necessary autonomy, at different levels, so that it can accomplish complex missions, like autonomous exploration and patrolling, without the remote attendance of an operator. The solution proposed is based on a robotic methodology that considers a multilevel control structure, with different real time requirements, where each level is built on multiple interconnected and clearly defined modules. The proposed control structure consists of a high level mission control and supervision module, an intermediate level control module for navigation and obstacle management, and at the lower level, the control module which deals with stability and vessel survival. An implementation of the control architecture is shown for a UAV platform used for geophysical exploration.

Current analysis of data streamed back to Earth by the Cassini spacecraft features Titan as one of the most exciting places in the solar system. NASA centers and universities around the US, as well as the European Space Agency, are studying the possibility of sending, as part of the next mission to this giant moon of Saturn, a hot-air balloon (Montgolfier-type) for further and more in-depth exploration. The basic idea would be to design a reliable, semi-autonomous, and yet cheap Montgolfier capable of using continuous flow of waste heat from a power source to lift the balloon and sustain its altitude in the Titan environment. In this paper we study the problem of locally navigating a hot-air balloon in the nitrogen-based Titan atmosphere. The basic idea is to define a strategy (i.e. design of a suitable guidance system) that allows autonomous and semi-autonomous navigation of the balloon using the available (and partial) knowledge of the wind structure blowing on the saturnian satellite surface. Starting from first principles we determined the appropriate thermal and dynamical models describing (a) the vertical dynamics of the balloon and (b) the dynamics of the balloon moving on a vertical plane (2-D motion). Next, various non-linear fuzzy-based control strategies have been evaluated, analyzed and implemented in MATLAB to numerically simulate the capability of the system to simultaneously maintain altitude, as well as a scientifically desirable trajectory. We also looked at the ability of the balloon to perform station keeping. The results of the simulation are encouraging and show the effectiveness of such a system to cheaply and effectively perform semi-autonomous exploration of Titan.

This article depicts a navigation control system design that is based on a set of rules in order to follow a desired trajectory. The full control of the aircraft considered here comprises: a low level stability control loop, based on classic PID controller and the higher level navigation whose main job is to exercise lateral control (course) and altitude control, trying to follow a desired trajectory. The rules and PID gains were adjusted systematically according to the result of flight simulation. In spite of its simplicity, the rule-based navigation control proved to be robust, even with big perturbation, like crossing winds.

If the goal of planetary exploration is to build a permanent and expanding, self-sustaining extraterrestrial civilization, then clever and myriad uses must be made of planetary resources. Resources must be identified and evaluated according to their practicality. A new economy should be devised based on resource occurrence, ore accessibility, options for ore transport, material beneficiation, and manufacturing; end uses and demand; and full economic cost/benefit assessment. Locating and evaluating these resources should be done with coordinated robotic assets arrayed in orbit and on the surface. Sensor arrays and tandem on-ground means of physical manipulation of rocks should incorporate highly capable onboard data processing, feature detection, and quantification of material properties; intelligent decision making; a flexible capacity to re-order priorities and act on those priorities in carrying out exploration programs; and human-robot interaction. As resource exploration moves into exploitation, sensors working in tandem with robust physical manipulation will place increased emphasis on automation in effective and safe robotic quarrying, tunneling, boring, and ore beneficiation. Any new global planetary economy will have to weigh the efficiency of resource identification and utilization with full-spectrum cost/benefit assessment for human health and safety, the environment, future habitability and sustainability, and human priorities in the development and growth of civilization. It makes no sense to rove from one planet to another in a wave of resource use and depletion, like interplanetary locusts. Robotic systems will open new worlds to human use, but they will also place a premium on human ability to control exponentially growing consumption.

A prototype of a steerable six-legged hopping robot for exploring low-gravity environments was designed, built, and tested. A 35 cm vertical hop was achieved, motorized steering of all six legs was demonstrated over a 40-degree range, and angled hopping was performed at a fixed 60-degree angle. Gyro stabilization was demonstrated through a hopping simulation of a modeled hopping robot with a controllable flywheel in lunar gravity.

Crucial questions for possible utilization of Near Earth Asteroids include how to break asteroid materials down to particle sizes that can be processed. This remained difficult to answer because of the limited number and resolutions of images previous obtained through asteroid missions. Recently, the Hayabusa spacecraft obtained unprecedentedly high-resolution images of a ~300m-sized asteroid, Itokawa, which gives unique opportunity to discuss the nature of surface materials on a small asteroid. Hayabusa reveals that the asteroid is covered by fine- and coarse-grained materials, including granules, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders up to tens of meters. Gravels on this small asteroid appear to be loosely deposited along the gravitational equipotential surfaces. The existence of smooth areas as well as boulder-rich rough areas indicate that gravels should have experienced migrations and segregations. Thus, the issue regarding the breaking of asteroid materials appears to have been resolved naturally, at least for this asteroid, which has important implications for future robotic missions dedicated to resource exploration and utilization.

A launchable and retrievable tetherbot exploration system for low-gravity environments is proposed where a small, tethered robot is launched from a base lander or vehicle to a desired position up to 50 m away. When its exploration mission is complete, it hops vertically above the surface and is simultaneously reeled back in by the base vehicle while still above ground. Benefits include the ability to traverse long distances in short amounts of time and minimal energy expense independent of terrain roughness. This technique has the capability to reach locations too difficult, too dangerous, or unreachable by the base vehicle. Prototypes of a steerable six-legged hopping robot and electric reel were developed. A dynamic simulation demonstrated the capabilities of launching and tether retrieval.

Effective scientific exploration of remote targets such as solar system objects increasingly calls for autonomous data analysis and decision making on-board. Today, robots in space missions are programmed to traverse from one location to another without regard to what they might be passing by. By not processing data as they travel, they can miss important discoveries, or will need to travel back if scientists on Earth find the data warrant backtracking. This is a suboptimal use of resources even on relatively close targets such as the Moon or Mars. The farther mankind ventures into space, the longer the delay in communication, due to which interesting findings from data sent back to Earth are made too late to command a (roving, floating, or orbiting) robot to further examine a given location. However, autonomous commanding of robots in scientific exploration can only be as reliable as the scientific information extracted from the data that is collected and provided for decision making. In this paper, we focus on the discovery scenario, where information extraction is accomplished with unsupervised clustering. For high-dimensional data with complicated structure, detailed segmentation that identifies all significant groups and discovers the small, surprising anomalies in the data, is a challenging task at which conventional algorithms often fail. We approach the problem with precision manifold learning using self-organizing neural maps with non-standard features developed in the course of our research. We demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of this approach on multi-spectral imagery from the Mars Exploration Rovers Pancam, and on synthetic hyperspectral imagery.

Many systems and processes, both natural and artificial, may be described by parameter-driven mathematical and physical models. We introduce a generally applicable Stochastic Optimization Framework (SOF) that can be interfaced to or wrapped around such models to optimize model outcomes by effectively "inverting" them. The Visual and Autonomous Exploration Systems Research Laboratory (http://autonomy.caltech.edu edu) at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) has long-term experience in the optimization of multi-dimensional systems and processes. Several examples of successful application of a SOF are reviewed and presented, including biochemistry, robotics, device performance, mission design, parameter retrieval, and fractal landscape optimization. Applications of a SOF are manifold, such as in science, engineering, industry, defense & security, and reconnaissance/exploration. Keywords: Multi-parameter optimization, design/performance optimization, gradient-based steepest-descent methods, local minima, global minimum, degeneracy, overlap parameter distribution, fitness function, stochastic optimization framework, Simulated Annealing, Genetic Algorithms, Evolutionary Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Computation, multi-objective optimization, Pareto-optimal front, trade studies )

Remote sensing studies are often based on simplified approaches describing the photon transport in absorbing and scattering media. The main purpose of the present paper is to show the potentiality of modeling directly the transport phenomena by mean of linear Boltzmann equation. Some details about the solution method of the integro-differential equation are reported with a collection of results of relevance in planetary study domain. An inverse approach based on artificial neural network is also proposed to retrieve the optical properties of planetary surfaces and its performances are tested in various cases.

Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) data can be used to identify the presence of minerals on the surface or Mars. The data are a peculiar set from which to extract endmembers. Using an image from a previously investigate area of the surface, we compare a geometrical and a statistical algorithm for extracting endmembers for mineral identification. Both algorithms correctly identified the spectra of the two minerals known to be present in the Nili Fossae region of Mars. Both algorithms suffer from linearity assumption. Even though the statistical algorithm is less robust with respect to outliers, it has potential to extract endmembers in complex data clouds because of its local nature.

Change detection is the process of identifying difference in the scenes of an object or a phenomenon, by observing the same geographic region at different times. Many algorithms have been applied to monitor various environmental changes. Examples of these algorithms are difference image, ratio image, classification comparison, and change vector analysis. In this paper, a change detection approach for multi-temporal multi-spectral remote sensing images, based on Independent Component Analysis (ICA), is proposed. The environmental changes can be detected in reduced second and higher-order dependencies in multi-temporal remote sensing images by ICA algorithm. This can remove the correlation among multi-temporal images without any prior knowledge about change areas. Different kinds of land cover changes are obtained in these independent source images. The experimental results in synthetic and real multi-temporal multi-spectral images show the effectiveness of this change detection approach.

The digital space micro-cameras are compact and lightweight units able to operate in harsh environmental conditions (low temperature, vacuum, resistance to vibrations and shocks) while combining high performances (high resolution, high data rate, standard interface, internal memory) and low power consumption. We present the concept that has been used in several missions from the European Space Agency and the perspectives offered by these miniaturized systems for space applications.