This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 6983, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction, and the Conference Committee listing.

One aspect of grading table eggs is shell checks or cracks. Currently, USDA voluntary regulations require that humans grade a representative sample of all eggs processed. However, as processing plants and packing facilities continue to increase their volume and throughput, human graders are having difficulty matching the pace of the machines. Additionally, some plants also have a problem with micro-cracks that the graders often miss because they are very small and hard to see immediately post-processing but grow and become readily apparent before they reach market. An imaging system was developed to help the grader detect these small micro-cracks. The imaging system utilized one image captured at atmospheric pressure and a second at a slight negative pressure to enhance the crack and make detection much easier. A simple image processing algorithm was then applied to the ratio of these two images and the resulting image, containing both cracked and/or intact eggs were color-coded to simplify identification. The imaging system was capable of imaging 15 eggs in about 3/4 second and the algorithm processing took about another 10 seconds. These times could easily be reduced with a dedicated, multi-threaded computer program. In analyzing 1000 eggs, the system was 99.6% accurate overall with only 0.3% false positives compared to 94.2% accurate overall for the human graders with 1.2% false positives. An international patent on the system was filed and further automation of the system is needed.

We developed a polarization sensitive imaging system that can acquire reflectance images in turbid samples using incident light of different polarization states. Using this system, we studied polarization imaging on bovine sternomandibularis muscle strips using light of two orthogonal linearly polarized states. We found the obtained polarization sensitive reflectance images had interesting patterns depending on the polarization states. In addition, we computed four elements of the Mueller matrix from the acquired images. As a comparison, we also obtained polarization images of a 20% Intralipid"R" solution and compared the results with those from muscle samples. We found that the polarization imaging patterns from Intralipid solution can be described with a model based on single-scattering approximation. However, the polarization images in muscle had distinct patterns and can not be explained by this simple model. These results implied that the unique structural properties of skeletal muscle play important roles in modulating the propagation of polarized light.

Citrus canker is one of the most devastating diseases that threaten citrus crops. Technologies that can efficiently identify citrus canker would assure fruit quality and safety and enhance the competitiveness and profitability of the citrus industry. This research was aimed to investigate the potential of using hyperspectral imaging technique for detecting canker lesions on citrus fruit. A portable hyperspectral imaging system consisting of an automatic sample handling unit, a light source, and a hyperspectral imaging unit was developed for citrus canker detection. The imaging system was used to acquire reflectance images from citrus samples in the wavelength range between 400 nm and 900 nm. Ruby Red grapefruits with normal and various diseased skin conditions including canker, copper burn, greasy spot, wind scar, cake melanose, and specular melanose were tested. Hyperspectral reflectance images were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA) to compress the 3-D hyperspectral image data and extract useful image features that could be used to discriminate cankerous samples from normal and other diseased samples. Image processing and classification algorithms were developed based upon the transformed images of PCA. The overall accuracy for canker detection was 92.7%. This research demonstrated that hyperspectral imaging technique could be used for discriminating citrus canker from other confounding diseases.

A rapid nondestructive technology is needed to detect bacterial contamination on the surfaces of food processing equipment to reduce public health risks. A portable hyperspectral fluorescence imaging system was used to evaluate potential detection of microbial biofilm on stainless steel typically used in the manufacture of food processing equipment. Stainless steel coupons were immersed in bacterium cultures, such as E. coli, Pseudomonas pertucinogena, Erwinia chrysanthemi, and Listeria innocula. Following a 1-week exposure, biofilm formations were assessed using fluorescence imaging. In addition, the effects on biofilm formation from both tryptic soy broth (TSB) and M9 medium with casamino acids (M9C) were examined. TSB grown cells enhance biofilm production compared with M9C-grown cells. Hyperspectral fluorescence images of the biofilm samples, in response to ultraviolet-A (320 to 400 nm) excitation, were acquired from approximately 416 to 700 nm. Visual evaluation of individual images at emission peak wavelengths in the blue revealed the most contrast between biofilms and stainless steel coupons. Two-band ratios compared with the single-band images increased the contrast between the biofilm forming area and stainless steel coupon surfaces. The 444/588 nm ratio images exhibited the greatest contrast between the biofilm formations and stainless coupon surfaces.

An immuno sandwich method was evaluated for the detection of Salmonella in liquid eggs. Liquid eggs spiked with different out-break strains of Salmonella were mixed with proper enrichment media and incubated at 37 C for 4 to 20 h. After enrichment, immunomagnetic beads (IMB) coated with anti Salmonella antibodies were used to capture the bacteria. Samarium (Sm) labeled anti Salmonella antibodies were then used to form sandwiched complexes with IMB captured bacteria. Sandwiched Salmonella were then treated with Sm-chelator to allow the measurement of the released Sm by time-resolved fluorescence (TRF). The processes ranging from IMB capture to Sm chelation were performed using an automated KingFisher apparatus. With this approach, the presence of ~ 1 CFU of outbreak strains of Salmonella Enteritidis per egg (~50 g of liquid eggs) could be detected after enrichment for 20 h at 37 C. For higher levels of Salmonella Enteritidis contamination, e.g., 10 CFU per 50 g of liquid eggs, the enrichment time could be reduced to 5 h at 37 C. The results demonstrated that a combination of IMB capture and TRF measurement could be a rapid and sensitive method for Salmonella Enteritidis detection in liquid eggs.

Techniques for routine and rapid screening of the presence of foodborne bacteria are needed, and this study reports the feasibility of citrate-reduced silver colloidal SERS for identifying E. coli, Listeria, and Salmonella. Relative standard deviation (RSD) of SERS spectra from silver colloidal suspensions and ratios of P-O SERS peaks from small molecule (K3PO4) were used to assess the reproducibility, stability, and binding effectiveness of citrate-reduced silver colloids over batch and storage process. The results suggested the reproducibility of silver colloids over batch process and also stability and consistent binding effectiveness over 60-day storage period. Notably, although silver colloidal nanoparticles were stable for at least 90 days, their binding effectiveness began to decrease slightly after 60-day storage, with a binding reduction of about 12% at 90th day. Colloidal silver SERS, as demonstrated here, could be an important alternative technique in the rapid and simultaneous screening of the presence of three most outbreak bacteria due to the exclusive biomarkers, label-free and easy sampling attribute.

Many modern technologies widely deploy semi-autonomous robotic platforms, remotely controlled by a human operator. Such tasks usually require rapid fusion of multisensor imagery and auxiliary geospatial data. Operational-control units in particular can be considered as displays of the decision-support systems, and the complexity of automated multi-domain geospatial data fusion leads to human-in-the loop technology which widely deploys visual analytics. While a number of research studies have investigated eye movements and attention on casual scenes, there has been a lack of investigations concerning the expert's eye movements and visual attention, specifically when an operator is engaged in real-time visual data fusion to control and maneuver a remote unmanned robotic vehicle which acquires visual data using CCTV cameras in visible, IR or other spectral zones, and transmits this data through telemetric channels to a human operator. In this paper we investigate the applicability of eye-tracking technology for the numerical assessment of efficiency of an operator in fusion of multi-sensor and multi-geometry visual data in real-time robotic control tasks.

We present the framework for a battlefield change detection system that allows military analysts to coordinate and utilize live collection of airborne LIDAR range data in a highly interactive visual interface. The system consists of three major components: The adaptive and self-maintaining model of the battlefield selectively incorporates the minority of new data it deems significant, while discarding the redundant majority. The interactive interface presents the analyst with only the minute portion of the data the system deems relevant, provides tools to facilitate the decision making process, and adjusts its behavior to reflect the analyst's objectives. Finally, the cycle is completed by the generation of a goal map for the LIDAR collection hardware that instructs as to which areas should be sampled next in order to best advance the change detection task. All together, the system empowers analysts with the ability to make sense of a deluge of measurements by extracting the salient features and continually refining its definitions of relevancy.

This paper explores the basis and usefulness of a predictive model for the architecture of data and knowledge visualizations based on human higher-cognition, including human tendencies in reasoning heuristics and cognitive biases. The strengths and weakness of would-be human and computer collaborators are explored, and a model framework is outlined and discussed.

The quantity and variety of sensors, available for reconnaissance and surveillance is larger than ever before. However, increasing the number of sensors results in escalating costs and efforts to analyze the sensor data. Hence it is obvious that with an increasing number of available sensors the task to determine where reconnaissance requirement is highest and what sensor combination to use in order to close the information gap becomes more and more complex. Therefore semiautomated systems are needed to assist the commander of reconnaissance sources. Nevertheless the final decision about sensor deployment is often made by humans. Thus a module is needed to display the current situation to the decision maker in a way that allows him to understand the situation at first glance. Using knowledge about what men are better at, and what machines are better at, we developed on the one hand a mathematical model that allows us determine decision relevant measures in reconnaissance tasks. On the other hand a visualization concept for reconnaissance requirement, which visualizes in an intuitive way where reconnaissance requirement is highest, has been developed.

Presenting information on a geopolitical map can offer powerful insight into a problem by leveraging an individual's innate capacity to discover patterns and to use map-related cues to incorporate pre-existing knowledge. This mode of presentation is not without its flaws, however, as the act of placing information at specific coordinates can imply a false sense of the data's geo-spatial certainty. Traditional uncertainty visualization techniques, such as those that change primitive attributes or employ animation, can create large amounts of clutter or actively distract when visualizing geospatially uncertain events within large datasets. To effectively identify geo-spatial trends within the Global Terrorism Database of the START Center, we have developed a novel usage of squarified treemaps that maintains the strengths of traditional map-viewing but incorporates some measure of data verity.

Intelligent surveillance systems (ISS) have gained a significant attention in recent years due to the nationwide security concerns. Some of the important applications of ISS include: homeland security, border monitoring, battlefield intelligence, and sensitive facility monitoring. The essential requirements of an ISS include: (1) multi-modality multi-sensor data and information fusion, (2) communication networking, (3) distributed data/information processing,(4) Automatic target recognition and tracking, (5) Scenario profiling from discrete correlated/uncorrelated events, (6) Context-based situation reasoning, and (7) Collaborative resource sharing and decision support systems. In this paper we have addressed the problem of humanposture classification in crowded urban terrain environments. Certain range of human postures can be attributed to different suspicious acts of intruders in a constrained environment. By proper time analysis of human trespassers' postures in an environment, it would be possible to identify and differentiate malicious intention of the trespassers from other normal human behaviors. Specifically in this paper, we have proposed an image processing-based approach for characterization of five different human postures including: standing, bending, crawling, carrying a heavy object, and holding a long object. Two approaches were introduced to address the problem: template-matching and Hamming Adaptive Neural Network (HANN) classifiers. The former approach performs human posture characterization via binary-profile projection and applies a correlation-based method for classification of human postures. The latter approach is based a HANN technique. For training of the neural, the posture-patterns are initially compressed, thresholded, and serialized. The binary posture-pattern arrays were then used for training of the HANN. The comparative performance evaluation of both approaches the same set of training and testing examples were used to measure their effectiveness in classifying of five classes of human posture patterns. This paper presents and discusses the results of this experimental work. Both approaches demonstrated very promising results.

With the increase of terrorist activity around the world, it has become more important than ever to analyze and understand these activities over time. Although the data on terrorist activities are detailed and relevant, the complexity of the data has rendered the understanding and analysis difficult. We present a visual analytical approach to effectively identify related entities such as terrorist groups, events, locations, etc. based on a 2D layout. Our methods are based on sequence comparison from bioinformatics, modified to incorporate the element of time. By allowing the user the freedom to link entities by their activities over time, we provide a new framework for comparison of event sequences. Our scoring mechanism is robust and flexible, giving the user the flexibility to define the extent to which time is considered in aligning entities. Incorporated with high interactivity, the user can efficiently navigate through tens of thousands of records recorded in over a hundred dimensions of data by choosing combinations of categories to examine. Exploration of the terrorist activities in our system reveals relationships between entities that are not easily detectable using traditional methods.

Recently we could observe a huge change in the mobile industry when the original idea of mobile phone was transformed into the new concept of mobile multimedia devices capable to perform multiple complex tasks and integrating a number of functionalities. As a consequence it resulted in significant increase of the device integration time and cost and complicated deployment of the new technologies. The device integrators are forced to favor modularity everywhere where it is possible in design of new devices, which results in a new trend towards networked architectures for the mobile devices. However, moving towards networked architectures specifically designed to overcome limitations brought by the mobile devices is a time consuming task. It requires fresh mind analysis of many solutions applied in other contexts, since some of the constraints and requirements are unique in comparison with e.g. SoC, NoC, which are the most known embedded network solutions, and of course they are significantly different comparing to the wide area networks. The main differentiating factors are: strongly constrained power consumption by the battery life time; and a need for modular architecture to allow reuse of the existing components or modules. The paper provides an overview of the state of art in the embedded networks research and describes general background for our studies, key assumptions, restrictions and limitations that we faced at the beginning of development of the embedded networks architecture for mobile devices.

High rate interconnections are important subsystems in modern data processing and control systems of many classes. They are especially important in prospective embedded and on-board systems that used to be multicomponent systems with parallel or distributed architecture, [1]. Modular architecture systems of previous generations were based on parallel busses that were widely used and standardised: VME, PCI, CompactPCI, etc. Busses evolution went in improvement of bus protocol efficiency (burst transactions, split transactions, etc.) and increasing operation frequencies. However, due to multi-drop bus nature and multi-wire skew problems the parallel bussing speedup became more and more limited. For embedded and on-board systems additional reason for this trend was in weight, size and power constraints of an interconnection and its components. Parallel interfaces have become technologically more challenging as their respective clock frequencies have increased to keep pace with the bandwidth requirements of their attached storage devices. Since each interface uses a data clock to gate and validate the parallel data (which is normally 8 bits or 16 bits wide), the clock frequency need only be equivalent to the byte rate or word rate being transmitted. In other words, for a given transmission frequency, the wider the data bus, the slower the clock. As the clock frequency increases, more high frequency energy is available in each of the data lines, and a portion of this energy is dissipated in radiation. Each data line not only transmits this energy but also receives some from its neighbours. This form of mutual interference is commonly called "cross-talk," and the signal distortion it produces can become another major contributor to loss of data integrity unless compensated by appropriate cable designs. Other transmission problems such as frequency-dependent attenuation and signal reflections, while also applicable to serial interfaces, are more troublesome in parallel interfaces due to the number of additional cable conductors involved. In order to compensate for these drawbacks, higher quality cables, shorter cable runs and fewer devices on the bus have been the norm. Finally, the physical bulk of the parallel cables makes them more difficult to route inside an enclosure, hinders cooling airflow and is incompatible with the trend toward smaller form-factor devices. Parallel busses worked in systems during the past 20 years, but the accumulated problems dictate the need for change and the technology is available to spur the transition. The general trend in high-rate interconnections turned from parallel bussing to scalable interconnections with a network architecture and high-rate point-to-point links. Analysis showed that data links with serial information transfer could achieve higher throughput and efficiency and it was confirmed in various research and practical design. Serial interfaces offer an improvement over older parallel interfaces: better performance, better scalability, and also better reliability as the parallel interfaces are at their limits of speed with reliable data transfers and others. The trend was implemented in major standards' families evolution: e.g. from PCI/PCI-X parallel bussing to PCIExpress interconnection architecture with serial lines, from CompactPCI parallel bus to ATCA (Advanced Telecommunications Architecture) specification with serial links and network topologies of an interconnection, etc. In the article we consider a general set of characteristics and features of serial interconnections, give a brief overview of serial interconnections specifications. In more details we present the SpaceWire interconnection technology. Have been developed for space on-board systems applications the SpaceWire has important features and characteristics that make it a prospective interconnection for wide range of embedded systems.

There is a growing potential of applications for wireless monitoring, control and instrumentation in industrial environments, construction sites and agriculture. Wireless communication technologies have clear benefits in harsh environments where traditional cables are too vulnerable or they cannot be installed permanently. Sensor networks with multiple wireless sensor nodes are needed when the size of the monitored area is large and especially in dynamic environments, like construction sites where the sensors can be installed to moving vehicles and work machines. In this paper we present results from some of our developments where short range wireless communication technologies have been applied for industrial and non-consumer monitoring applications.

We analyze the extension of depth of field using both amplitude and phase modulation of the pupil function. In particular, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each approach and establish the range of applicability of each method based on the range of spatial frequencies of interest in the imaging system. Our result serves as a starting point for choosing the right form of modulation for extension of depth of field.

The current multiview 3 dimensional imaging systems are mostly based on a multiview image set. Depending on the methods of presenting and arranging the image set on a display panel or a screen, the systems are basically classified into contact- and projection-type. The contact-type is further classified into MV(Multiview), IP(Integral Photography), Multiple Image, FLA(Focused light array) and Tracking. The depth cue provided by those types are both binocular and motion parallaxes. The differences between the methods in a same type can only be identified by the composition of images projected to viewer eyes at the viewing regions.

We have developed experimental 3DTV systems based on integral method to obtain full-color, full-parallax with spatial imaging in real time. The resolution factors for reconstructed 3D images, namely, diffraction of an elemental lens, number of elemental lenses, number of pixels of an elemental image, and viewing zone are described. It is clarified a huge number of pixels is required for the whole elemental images and depth control reduces the requirement. The 3DTV systems using high resolution video are introduced in this paper.

There is an increasing effort in using digital holography for microscopy in various fields of life and material science because its unique advantage of capturing three dimensional information about the object simultaneously. In this paper we overview several important in-line digital holography arrangements used for microscopy and describe their performance in terms of lateral resolution and field-of-view.

Integral imaging (InI) systems are imaging devices that provide auto-stereoscopic images of 3D intensity objects. Since the birth of this new technology, InI systems have faced satisfactorily many of their initial drawbacks. Basically, two kind of procedures have been used: digital and optical procedures. The "3D Imaging and Display Group" at the University of Valencia, with the essential collaboration of Prof. Javidi, has centered its efforts in the 3D InI with optical processing. Among other achievements, our Group has proposed the annular amplitude modulation for enlargement of the depth of field, dynamic focusing for reduction of the facet-braiding effect, or the TRES and MATRES devices to enlarge the viewing angle.

We review several methods of generating holograms of 3D realistic objects illuminated by incoherent white light. Using these methods, it is possible to obtain holograms with a simple digital camera, operating in regular light conditions. Thus, most disadvantages characterizing conventional holography, namely the need for a powerful, highly coherent laser and meticulous stability of the optical system are avoided. These holograms can be reconstructed optically by illuminating them with a coherent plane wave, or alternatively by using a digital reconstruction technique. In order to generate the proposed hologram, the 3D scene is captured from multiple points of view by a simple digital camera. Then, the acquired projections are digitally processed to yield the final hologram of the 3D scene. Based on this principle, we can generate Fourier, Fresnel, image or other types of holograms. To obtain certain advantages over the regular holograms, we also propose new digital holograms, such as modified Fresnel holograms and protected correlation holograms. Instead of shifting the camera mechanically to acquire a different projection of the 3D scene each time, it is possible to use a microlens array for acquiring the entire projections in a single camera shot. Alternatively, only the extreme projections can be acquired experimentally, while the middle projections are predicted digitally by using the view synthesis algorithm. The prospective goal of these methods is to facilitate the design of a simple, portable digital holographic camera which can be useful for a variety of practical applications.

We present near-infrared (NIR) 3D sensing and reconstruction of occluded objects using synthetic aperture integral imaging (SAII). We present experiments with the NIR 3D imaging system using a radiant object. The occluded object is not observed in visible spectrum due to front obstruction. However, with 3D computational reconstruction, the NIR image of the object shows substantially reduced front obstruction.