This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9938, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction (if any), and Conference Committee listing.

Many photovoltaic (PV) technologies have been found to be sensitive to moisture that diffuses into a PV package. Even with the use of impermeable frontsheets and backsheets, moisture can penetrate from the edges of a module. To limit this moisture ingress pathway from occurring, manufacturers often use a low permeability polyisobutylene (PIB) based edge seal filled with desiccant to further restrict moisture ingress. Moisture ingress studies have shown that these materials are capable of blocking moisture for the 25-year life of a module; but to do so, they must remain well-adhered and free of cracks. This work focuses on adapting the Boeing Wedge test for use with edge seals laminated using glass substrates as part of a strategy to assess the long-term durability of edge seals. The advantage of this method is that it duplicates the residual stresses and strains that a glass/glass module may have when the lamination process results in some residual glass bending that puts the perimeter in tension. Additionally, this method allows one to simultaneously expose the material to thermal stress, humidity, mechanical stress, and ultraviolet radiation. The disadvantage of this method generally is that we are limited by the fracture toughness of the glass substrates that the edge seal is adhered to. However, the low toughness of typical uncrosslinked or sparsely crosslinked PIB makes them suitable for this technique. We present data obtained during the development of the wedge test for use with PV edge seal materials. This includes development of the measuring techniques and evaluation of the test method with relevant materials. We find consistent data within a given experiment, along with the theoretical independence of fracture toughness measurements with wedge thickness. This indicates that the test methodology is reproducible. However, even though individual experimental sets are consistent, the reproducibility between experimental sets is poor. We believe this may be due to inconsistencies in sample history, sample batch, or small changes in sample preparation/assembly from one month to the next. Because the fracture strength of typical edge seal materials is so low, they cannot be relied upon for mechanical strength. A small stress or strain on the edge seal is capable of promoting delamination or tearing causing the edge seal to fail. Because of this, edge seals are very dependent on the processing and construction parameters in the full size PV module such that any long term evaluation of their durability must be conducted on full size modules to be accurate.

DuPont has been working steadily to develop accelerated backsheet tests that correlate with solar panels observations in the field. This report updates efforts in sequential testing. Single exposure tests are more commonly used and can be completed more quickly, and certain tests provide helpful predictions of certain backsheet failure modes. DuPont recommendations for single exposure tests are based on 25-year exposure levels for UV and humidity/temperature, and form a good basis for sequential test development. We recommend a sequential exposure of damp heat followed by UV then repetitions of thermal cycling and UVA. This sequence preserves 25-year exposure levels for humidity/temperature and UV, and correlates well with a large body of field observations. Measurements can be taken at intervals in the test, although the full test runs 10 months. A second, shorter sequential test based on damp heat and thermal cycling tests mechanical durability and correlates with loss of mechanical properties seen in the field. Ongoing work is directed toward shorter sequential tests that preserve good correlation to field data.

heets are a key polymeric component of a PV module and understanding its degradation is necessary to be able to predict the lifetime of PV modules. We are developing a backsheet predictive tests and a model based on point- in-time data from analytical techniques and datastreams that are applicable to both outdoor and indoor PV module backsheet studies and are supplemented with meteorology data, climatic and brand/model, and other accessible information. The predictive tests and models will specify indoor and outdoor exposure and evaluation data acquisition criteria, variable selection, and temporal duration and variation so as to be able to predict backsheet performance in various climatic zones. This backsheet performance prediction is based on defined backsheet failures in the field, and is quantified by tracking backsheet degradation in the field so as to determine degradation rates. The backsheet lifetime performance predictive tests and models, will be developed using a Stressor / Mechanism / Response framework in which all data are categorized as stressor, mechanism and performance (response) variables and are represented as discrete points-in-time datasets. We will develop and validate these accelerated indoor exposures and evaluations and models and cross-correlate the outdoor and accelerated indoor exposures and evaluations. The evaluation techniques include nondestructive spectroscopy and microscopy techniques and destructive techniques and will provide data in predefined variables, which are used in the predictive modeling.

Photovoltaic devices are often sensitive to moisture and must be packaged in such a way as to limit moisture ingress for 25 years or more. Typically, this is accomplished through the use of impermeable front and backsheets (e.g., glass sheets or metal foils). However, this will still allow moisture ingress between the sheets from the edges. Attempts to hermetically seal with a glass frit or similarly welded bonds at the edge have had problems with costs and mechanical strength. Because of this, low diffusivity polyisobutylene materials filled with desiccant are typically used. Although it is well known that these materials will substantially delay moisture ingress, correlating that to outdoor exposure has been difficult. Here, we use moisture ingress measurements at different temperatures and relative humidities to find fit parameters for a moisture ingress model for an edge-seal material. Then, using meteorological data, a finite element model is used to predict the moisture ingress profiles for hypothetical modules deployed in different climates and mounting conditions, assuming no change in properties of the edge-seal as a function of aging.

Soiling, the sedimentation of particulate matter (on the size scale of 1/10 the diameter of a human hair) on the exposed surfaces of solar collectors, is a growing area of concern for solar-system performance, reliability, maintenance, and cost. In the case of photovoltaics (PV), the condition of this first-surface of interaction of the incident photons is critical for ensuring that the maximum-possible light reaches the conversion devices. This paper begins with a more than seven-decade historical look at the research invested into this problem, highlighting the motivation and milestones; the researchers and the progress. The current growing terrestrial markets for solar have brought a new focus on soiling and dust issues. That is because many of these new markets in the solar-rich geographic regions of our world are ironically also in the most dust-rich and soiling-prone ones as well. This paper continues to provide an overview of the status of current research efforts toward understanding the basic soiling mechanisms, the relationships to the PV technology approaches, the geographical differences (highlighting Brasil, India, and the MENA region) in the severity of the problem, the dust physics and chemistry—all relating to the current and future mitigation approaches. Included are some fundamental microscale through nanoscale examinations at how individual dust particles adhere to module glass surfaces—as well as how the particles might stick to each other under certain environmental conditions. These observations are used to show how fundamental science may lead to the macroscale engineering solutions of these soiling problems. This presentation is designed to both overview the soiling area and highlight some of the current and future research directions, speculate on short-term approaches preventing solar showstoppers, and speculate on some “holy-grail” schemes that might lead to the final solutions.

Based on our results that conventional damp-heat (DDH) test on a commercial CCIGS (a.k.a. CCIS, CIGSS) module causes an irreversible "Test-specific" degradation (TSD) that is not observed in modules deployed in fields, we propose a new option for DDH testing of CIGS modules. We have tested full-size CIGS modules with/without forward bias, light irradiation and humidity during heat tests. The results clearly show that adding forward bias, or white light irradiation during DH tests suppresses this irreversible degradation. Based on these results, we have proposed to add forward bias and/or light irradiation during DH tests of CIGS modules, to make the test condition closer to real fields and suppress degradations not observed in the field.

Photovoltaic (PV) modules and systems are being used increasingly to provide renewable energy to schools, residences, small businesses and utilities. At this time, the home owners and small businesses have considerable difficulty in detecting module and/or system degradation and especially enforcing warranty. It needs to be noted that IEC 61215-1 (test req.), -2 (test proc.) and -1-1 (c-Si) are forecasted to be circulated end of Feb 2016 and only editorial changes would be possible. 61215 series does include thin film technologies and would be replacing 61646. Moreover, IEC 61215-1, section 7.2 power output and electric circuitry does contain significant changes to acceptance criteria regarding rated label values, particularly rated power. Even though it is believed that consensus could be achieved within IEC TC82 WG2, some of the smaller players that do not participate actively in IEC TC82 – may not be surprised and must be informed. The other tech specific parts 61215-1-2 (CdTe), -1-3 (a-Si, µc-Si) and -1-4 (CIS, CIGS) are out for comments. The IEC closing date was January 29, 2016. The additions alternative damp heat (DH) test proposed Solar Frontier is being reviewed. In the past, only 600 V systems were permitted in the grid-connected residential and commercial systems in the US. The US commercial systems can now use higher voltage (1,000-1500V) in order to reduce BOS component costs. It is believed that there would not be any problems. The Task Group 8 is collecting data on higher voltage systems.

Non-encapsulated CIGSSe solar cells, with a silver grid, were exposed to different temperatures for various periods in order to measure the effect of the heat exposure in CIGSSe modules. The heat treatment time and temperature were varied during the experiments, which were executed at atmospheric conditions. In all the cases, after reaching a temperature of about 300°C, the IV measurement showed a reduction of 2-3% in terms of V_OC and J_SC. This is confirmed respectively by Raman and EQE measurements as well. The efficiency drop was -7%, -29% and -48% respectively for 30 seconds, 300 seconds and 600 seconds of exposure time. With temperatures larger than 225°C, the series resistance starts to increase exponentially and a secondary barrier becomes visible in the IV curve. This barrier prevents the extraction of electrons and consequently reducing the solar cells efficiency. Lock-in thermography demonstrated the formation of shunts on the mechanical scribes only for 300 and 600 seconds exposure times. The shunt resistance reduction is in the range of 5% for all time periods.

Gaining an understanding of degradation mechanisms and their characterization are critical in developing relevant accelerated tests to ensure PV module performance warranty over a typical lifetime of 25 years. As newer technologies are adapted for PV, including new PV cell technologies, new packaging materials, and newer product designs, the availability of field data over extended periods of time for product performance assessment cannot be expected within the typical timeframe for business decisions. In this work, to enable product design decisions and product performance assessment for PV modules utilizing newer technologies, Simulation and Mechanism based Accelerated Reliability Testing (SMART) methodology and empirical approaches to predict field performance from accelerated test results are presented. The method is demonstrated for field life assessment of flexible PV modules based on degradation mechanisms observed in two accelerated tests, namely, Damp Heat and Thermal Cycling. The method is based on design of accelerated testing scheme with the intent to develop relevant acceleration factor models. The acceleration factor model is validated by extensive reliability testing under different conditions going beyond the established certification standards. Once the acceleration factor model is validated for the test matrix a modeling scheme is developed to predict field performance from results of accelerated testing for particular failure modes of interest. Further refinement of the model can continue as more field data becomes available. While the demonstration of the method in this work is for thin film flexible PV modules, the framework and methodology can be adapted to other PV products.

Oleylamine is used as a passivating layer instead of commercial high temperature SiN_x. Oleylamine coating applied on the n-type emitter side with p-type base polycrystalline silicon solar cells at room temperature using a simple spin coating method. It has been observed that there is 16% increase in efficiency after Oleylamine coating. Further, the solar cell was subjected to standard characterization namely current-voltage measurement for electrical parameters and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to understand the interaction of emitter surface and passivating Oleylamine. However, the passivation layer is not stable due to the reaction between Oleylamine and ambient air content such as humidity and carbon dioxide. This degradation can be prevented with suitable overcoating.

Channel cracking fragmentation testing and attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy were utilized to study mechanical and chemical degradation of a multilayered backsheet after outdoor and accelerated laboratory aging. A model sample of commercial PPE backsheet, namely polyethylene terephthalate/polyethylene terephthalate/ethylene vinyl acetate (PET/PET/EVA) was investigated. Outdoor aging was performed in Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA for up to 510 days, and complementary accelerated laboratory aging was conducted on the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) SPHERE (Simulated Photodegradation via High Energy Radiant Exposure). Fracture energy, mode I stress intensity factor and film strength were analyzed using an analytical model based on channel cracking fragmentation testing results. The correlation between mechanical and chemical degradation was discussed for both outdoor and accelerated laboratory aging. The results of this work provide preliminary understanding on failure mechanism of backsheets after weathering, laying the groundwork for linking outdoor and indoor accelerated laboratory testing for multilayer photovoltaic backsheets.

Poly(ethylene-terephthalate) (PET) film is a widely used material in photovoltaic module backsheets, for its dielectric breakdown strength, and in optical displays for its excellent combination of properties, notably optical clarity. However, PET degrades and loses optical clarity under environmental stressors of heat, moisture, and ultraviolet irradiance. Stabilizers are often included in PET formulation to increase its longevity; however, even these are subject to degradation and further reduce optical clarity. In a previous study, it was found that material yellowing is dominant with UV light exposures while moisture mostly causes hazing of the samples. Lifetime service prediction models were developed for PET from yellowing and hazing responses. To study the loss of optical clarity in PET films, samples of a UV-stabilized grade of PET were exposed to heat, moisture, and UV irradiance as prescribed by ASTM-G154 Cycle 4 and their optical properties were studied over time. Surface gloss loss and bulk haze formation were observed as primary material responses to degradation; after the first 168 hour exposure step an initial three-fold increase in bulk haze and a two-fold reduction in gloss were observed. Multi-Angle, Polarization-Dependent, Reflection, Transmission, and Scattering (MaPd:RTS) spectroscopy was employed to fully characterize the haze formation and gloss loss of the PET films under exposure.

Many PV-plants suffer from potential induced degradation (PID) which causes severe power reduction of installed PVmodules. Fast and reliable methods to detect PID and evaluate the impact on the module performance are gaining importance. Drone-assisted IR-inspection is a suitable method. PID affected modules are detected by their characteristic IR-fingerprint, modules with differing number of slightly heated cells occur more frequently at the negative string end. These modules show a degraded IV-curve, lowered Voc and Isc, and electroluminescence (EL)-images with suspicious, dark cells. Also, the measured string power is reduced. For a first quantitative data evaluation the suspicious cell are counted in the IR-images and correlated with the module power. A linear decrease of the module power with increasing number of suspicious cells results. A correlation function for estimating the module power was deduced, which has a mean deviation of less than 7%. This correlation function allows an acceptable approximation of the string power.

FP and L has deployed a 1 MW c-Si in a fenced compound at the Kennedy Space Center. Two 500 kW inverters located in an elevated and air-conditioned enclosure convert direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The generated power, DC and AC voltages and currents are measured and recorded. Charts of variation of PV parameters are generated for analyses. The generated power is also tabulated and reported on periodic basis. Infrared and visual images of the array, sections of the array, and of individual modules from the front and back are recorded periodically. Any interruption of power generation are recorded. The dust and corrosion on screws and frame were observed in a few modules. The temperature of active area of module is higher than that of metallic support and frame probably because of conduction of the heat by the heavy metallic structure. The 1-MW PV array is operating normally without signs of excessive degradation except for collection of dust towards the bottom of a few modules. Since these modules were not washed periodically and any cleaning was by rain. Thus the collection of dust towards the bottom of modules can be understood and does not pose a serious problem. Corrosion on screws and frame were observed in a few modules. This study if continued over a long time, will serve to follow the behavior of this reasonable size PV Plant.

First statistical evaluation of IR-inspections of PV-plants reveals that 86% of the installed PV-plants show IR-abnormalities. More than 120 PV-plants with more than 160,000 PV-modules were inspected and evaluated statistically. Main IR-abnormalities or failures in modules and string installations are analyzed, respectively. The average failure rate for PV-modules is about 8% and for module strings approximately 4%. The differentiation between the installation locations reveals that small residential installation show relatively more defective modules than large field installations. – Therefore, IR-imaging is a valuable method to give fast and reliable information about the actual quality and failure rate in inspected PV-installations.

Photovoltaic (PV) modules and systems are being installed increasingly on residential homes to increase the proportion of renewable energy in the energy mix. The ultimate goal is to attain sustainability without subsidy. The prices of PV modules and systems have declined substantially during the recent years. They will be reduced further to reach grid parity. Additionally the total consumed energy must be reduced by making the homes more energy efficient. FSEC/UCF Researchers have carried out research on development of PV cells and systems and on reducing the energy consumption in homes and by small businesses. Additionally, they have provided guidance on PV module and system installation and to make the homes energy efficient. The produced energy is fed into the utility grid and the consumed energy is obtained from the utility grid, thus the grid is assisting in the storage. Currently the State of Florida permits net metering leading to equal charge for the produced and consumed electricity. This paper describes the installation of 5.29 KW crystalline silicon PV system on a south-facing tilt at approximately latitude tilt on a single-story, three-bedroom house. It also describes the computer program on Building Energy Efficiency and the processes that were employed for reducing the energy consumption of the house by improving the insulation, air circulation and windows, etc. Finally it describes actual consumption and production of electricity and the installation of additional crystalline silicon PV modules and balance of system to make it a zero energy home.

PV module reliability is alsways an important issue for PV industry. In an outdoor PV system, PV modules suffer from degradation due to different factors. It is then very important to determine the loss mechanisms of a PV module and making improvement based on this. It is found in this work that due to mismatch effect, using fitting method to extract I-V characteristics might not be well applied on a PV module, especially when it has non-uniform degradation problem. This work proposes a method to accurately quantify the power loss of PV modules due to different degradation mechanisms, including series resistance (R_s) loss, non-uniform shunting loss and number of shunted cells, uniform shunting loss, uniform current loss, non-uniform current (mismatch) loss, recombination current (J₀₁ and J₀₂) losses of a PV module. All required input information are the measured current-voltage (I-V) curves and short circuit current- open circuit voltage (I_sc-V_oc) of PV module initial state and final state. The method is first applied to a simulated PV module with various degradation problems. Power loss due to each loss mechanism for the simulated PV module is then extracted using the proposed method and a pie chart can be generated. Comparing with the actual power loss on each loss mechanism, the method proposed in this work is proved to be very accurate. The method is then further applied to a degradated PV module istalled in an outdoor PV system. The power loss on series resistance, shunting and current mismatch are effectively identified and the number of shunted cells is accurately calculated. In the real application, this method can be used in both indoor and outdoor characterization, which can be very beneficial for PV degradation analysis of PV modules and systems.

Polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) modules have the advantage of lower manufacturing cost as compared to their monocrystalline counterparts, but generally exhibit both lower initial module efficiencies and more significant early-stage efficiency degradation than do similar monocrystalline PV modules. For both technologies, noticeable deterioration in power conversion efficiency typically occurs over the first two years of usage. Estimating PV lifetime by examining the performance degradation behavior under given environmental conditions is, therefore, one of continual goals for experimental research and economic analysis.

In the present work, accelerated lifecycle testing (ALT) on three polycrystalline PV technologies was performed in a full-scale, industrial-standard environmental chamber equipped with single-sun irradiance capability, providing an illumination uniformity of 98% over a 2 x 1.6m area. In order to investigate environmental aging effects, timedependent PV performance (I-V characteristic) was evaluated over a recurring, compressed day-night cycle, which simulated local daily solar insolation for the southwestern United States, followed by dark (night) periods. During a total test time of just under 4 months that corresponded to a year equivalent exposure on a fielded module, the temperature and humidity varied in ranges from 3°C to 40°C and 5% to 85% based on annual weather profiles for Tucson, AZ. Removing the temperature de-rating effect that was clearly seen in the data enabled the computation of normalized efficiency degradation with time and environmental exposure. Results confirm the impact of environmental conditions on the module long-term performance. Overall, more than 2% efficiency degradation in the first year of usage was observed for all thee polycrystalline Si solar modules. The average 5-year degradation of each PV technology was estimated based on their determined degradation rates.

In this work, the results of the research carried out on degradation mechanisms of c-SI PV modules after > 10 years of exposure in a Hot and humid climate in Mexico are presented. Degradation analysis using visual inspection, electrical performance, EL image, and IR was performed. 1-measurement analysis was implemented to determine the degradation rate per year. The P_max degradation rate obtained was 1:41%/yr. The results presented indicate that most of the electrical degradation is due FF drop (increased series resistance) among other details. The aim of this work is to provide information regarding the long term reliability and degradation rate of c-Si modules in the hot and humid climate in Mexico.

It is well known that the efficiency of a photovoltaic (PV) module is strongly impacted by its temperature such that higher temperatures lead to lower energy conversion efficiencies. An accurate measurement of the temperature de-rating effect, therefore, is vital to the correct interpretation of PV module performance under varied environmental conditions. The current work investigates and compares methods for performing measurements of module temperature both in the lab and in field-test environments. A comparison of several temperature measurement devices was made in order to establish the ideal sensor configuration for quantifying module operating temperature. Sensors were also placed in various locations along a string of up to eight photovoltaic modules to examine the variance in operating temperature with position in the string and within a larger array of strings.

The University of Arizona AzRISE (Arizona Research Institute for Solar Energy) and Tucson Electric Power solar test yard is currently undergoing renovations to upgrade and standardize the data acquisition capabilities throughout the yard. Test yard improvements have enabled increased data collection reliability through state-of-the-art and environmentallyrobust data logging and real-time analysis. Enhanced capabilities include 10 msec max. data resolution, precision PV backside temperature monitoring of both individual and strings of modules, measurement of both AC and DC outputs as well as GHI and POA irradiance, active data backup to eliminate data intermittency, and robust Ethernet connectivity for data collection. An on-site weather station, provides wind speed and direction, relative humidity, and air temperature data. The information collected is accessed remotely via web server and includes raw performance and environmental conditions as well as extracted figures of performance for systems under test. Complementing the UA’s existing accelerated environmental-testing chamber, the new test yard acquisition capabilities have enabled high fidelity system and sub-system-level operational testing under a range of field-level test conditions. The combined facilities, thus, provide a full-spectrum testing resource for photovoltaic performance and degradation analysis. Specific measurement characteristics and sample data collected from a polysilicon module test string are utilized to illustrate test yard capabilities.