This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9969, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, and Conference Committee listing.

A growing demand on incident detection is recognized since the Great East Japan Earthquake and successive accidents in Fukushima nuclear power plant in 2011. Radiation tolerant image sensors are powerful tools to collect crucial information at initial stages of such incidents. However, semiconductor based image sensors such as CMOS and CCD have limited tolerance to radiation exposure. Image sensors used in nuclear facilities are conventional vacuum tubes using thermal cathodes, which have large size and high power consumption. In this study, we propose a compact image sensor composed of a CdTe-based photodiode and a matrix-driven Spindt-type electron beam source called field emitter array (FEA). A basic principle of FEA-based image sensors is similar to conventional Vidicon type camera tubes, but its electron source is replaced from a thermal cathode to FEA. The use of a field emitter as an electron source should enable significant size reduction while maintaining high radiation tolerance. Current researches on radiation tolerant FEAs and development of CdTe based photoconductive films will be presented.

The telecentric zoom lens system (ZLS) has proven to be invaluable in flash x-ray field operations and recent successful experiments pertaining to stockpile stewardship. The ZLS contains 11 custom-manufactured lenses, a turning mirror (pellicle), and an x-ray-to-visible-light converting scintillator. Images are recorded on a fully characterized CCD. All hardware is supported by computerized, programmable, electro-mechanical mounts and alignment apparatus. Seven different glass material types varying in chemical stoichiometry comprise the 11 ZLS lenses. All lenses within the ZLS are out of the path of direct x-ray radiation during normal operation. However, any unshielded scattered x-ray radiation can result in energy deposition into the lenses, which may generate some scintillating light that can couple into the CCD. This extra light may contribute to a decrease in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and lower the overall fidelity of the radiograph images. An estimate of the scintillation generation and sensitivities for each of the seven types of glass used as lenses in the ZLS is presented. This report also includes estimates of the total observed background decoupling that each of the lens material types contribute.

There is growing interest in using low-energy flash x-ray sources in radiographic applications to provide high-contrast images of low-density objects. Due to the low-energy nature of the detected photons, thin bright scintillators are desired. In order to pursue an optimum radiographic system, experimental studies have been performed of the static imaging properties of thin microcolumnar CsI using a Platts x-ray source. The Platts source is a nominally 300 keV endpoint rod pinch diode x-ray source with a ~35 ns pulse time. The source was used to measure the imaging properties of microcolumnar CsI with various thicknesses and backings. The experimental setup was modeled in GEANT4, and the images were simulated to estimate system performance. Taking into account the source photon production, radiation transport, and system optical performance, an accurate assessment of the detection system can be deduced.

Gallium Nitride (GaN) is a wide-bandgap semiconductor having excellent radiation properties. GaN crystal is ionic-covalent with significant iconicity resulting in stronger molecular bond strength, which in in turn leads to excellent radiation hardness. Further, GaN has ultrafast carrier relaxation time. GaN transistors are promising for high-frequency applications due to their large bandgap (3.9eV) and higher breakdown field (<5MV/cm). These exceptional characteristics make GaN suitable to operate in high radiation flux environment such as fusion plasma facilities, for ultrafast detection. The expected detector temporal response is faster than 0.01-1 ns. We have been systematically testing neutron radiation effects in GaN devices and materials at Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE) with ever increased neutron fluence levels, and at National Ignition Facility (NIF) high foot, high yield shots. In 2013 LANSCE run cycle, we tested GaN UV LED devices at 3.1E11 neutrons/cm^2. In 2015-2016 LANSCE run cycles, we have been operating three neutron beam lines with fluence level 1.2E11, 1.5E13, and 1E15 neutrons/cm^2. The irradiated samples include GaN UV LEDs, GaN HEMTs, and GaN substrates. In the experiments up to 2015 run cycle, we have characterized electrical and optical performances of GaN device before and after neutron irradiation, including the device IV curve measurements monitored at over the three months neutron irradiation time, and device IV curve measurements before and after NIF high yield shot irradiation. We observed no substantial degradation. These experiments firmly established GaN devices as the radiation hard platform of the next generation fusion plasma diagnostic instruments.

During the previous three years, a Compton spectrometer has successfully measured the x-ray spectra of both continuous and flash radiographic sources. In this method, a collimated beam of x-rays incident on a convertor foil ejects Compton electrons. A collimator in the entrance to the spectrometer selects the forward-scattered electrons, which enter the magnetic field region of the spectrometer. The position of the electrons at the magnet’s focal plane is proportional to the square root of their momentum, allowing the x-ray spectrum to be reconstructed. The spectrometer is a neodymium-iron magnet which measures spectra in the <1 MeV to 20 MeV energy range. The energy resolution of the spectrometer was experimentally tested with the 44 MeV Short-Pulse Electron LINAC at the Idaho Accelerator Center. The measured values are mostly consistent with the design specification and historical values of the greater of 1% or 0.1 MeV. Experimental results from this study are presented in these proceedings.

Despite object detection, recognition, and identification being very active areas of computer vision research, many of the available tools to aid in these processes are designed with only photographs in mind. Although some algorithms used specifically for feature detection and identification may not take explicit advantage of the colors available in the image, they still under-perform on radiographs, which are grayscale images. We are especially interested in the robustness of these algorithms, specifically their performance on a preexisting database of X-ray radiographs in compressed JPEG form, with multiple ways of describing pixel information. We will review various aspects of the performance of available feature detection and identification systems, including MATLABs Computer Vision toolbox, VLFeat, and OpenCV on our non-ideal database. In the process, we will explore possible reasons for the algorithms' lessened ability to detect and identify features from the X-ray radiographs.

We have explored a method of using the side surfaces of a thin monolithic scintillation crystal for reading out scintillation photons. A Monte-Carlo simulation was carried out for an LYSO crystal of 50:8mmx50:8mmx3mm with 5 silicon photomultipliers attached on each of the four side surfaces. With 511 keV gamma-rays, X-Y spatial resolution of 2:10mm was predicted with an energy resolution of 9:0%. We also explored adding optical barriers to improve the X-Y spatial resolution, and an X-Y spatial resolution of 786um was predicted with an energy resolution of 9:2%. Multiple layers can be stacked together and readout channels can be combined. Depth-of- interaction information (DOI) can be directly read out. This method provides an attractive detector module design for positron emission tomography (PET).

While object detection is a relatively well-developed field with respect to visible light photographs, there are significantly fewer algorithms designed to work with other imaging modalities. X-ray radiographs have many unique characteristics that introduce additional challenges that can cause common image processing and object detection algorithms to begin to fail. Examples of these problematic attributes include the fact that radiographs are only represented in gray scale with similar textures and that transmission overlap occurs when multiple objects are overlaid on top of each other. In this paper we not only analyze the effectiveness of common object detection techniques as applied to our specific database, but also outline how we combined various techniques to improve overall performance. While significant strides have been made towards developing a robust object detection algorithm for use with the given database, it is still a work in progress. Further research will be needed in order to deal with the specific obstacles posed by radiographs and X-ray imaging systems. Success in this project would have disruptive repercussions in fields ranging from medical imaging to manufacturing quality assurance and national security.

This work will investigate the imaging capabilities of the Multix multi-channel linear array detector and its potential suitability for big-data industrial and security applications versus that which is currently deployed. Multi-channel imaging data holds huge promise in not only finer resolution in materials classification, but also in materials identification and elevated data quality for various radiography and computed tomography applications. The potential pitfall is the signal quality contained within individual channels as well as the required exposure and acquisition time necessary to obtain images comparable to those of traditional configurations. This work will present results of these detector technologies as they pertain to a subset of materials of interest to the industrial and security communities; namely, water, copper, lead, polyethylene, and tin.

This study sought to mitigate risk in transitioning newly developed glass-ceramic scintillator technology from a laboratory concept to commercial product by identifying the most significant hurdles to increased scale. These included selection of cost effective raw material sources, investigation of process parameters with the most significant impact on performance, and synthesis steps that could see the greatest benefit from participation of an industry partner that specializes in glass or optical component manufacturing. Efforts focused on enhancing the performance of glass-ceramic nanocomposite scintillators developed specifically for medical imaging via composition and process modifications that ensured efficient capture of incident X-ray energy and emission of scintillation light. The use of cost effective raw materials and existing manufacturing methods demonstrated proof-of-concept for economical viable alternatives to existing benchmark materials, as well as possible disruptive applications afforded by novel geometries and comparatively lower cost per volume. The authors now seek the expertise of industry to effectively navigate the transition from laboratory demonstrations to pilot scale production and testing to evince the industry of the viability and usefulness of composite-based scintillators.

There are several challenges associated with the design and manufacture of the optics required for the imaging time-of- propagation detector constructed for the Belle II particle physics experiment. This detector uses Cherenkov light radiated in quartz bars to identify subatomic particles: pions, kaons, and protons. The optics are physically large (125 cm x 45 cm x 2 cm bars and 45 cm x 10 cm x 5 cm prisms), all surfaces are optically polished, and there is very little allowance for chamfers or surface defects. In addition to the optical challenges, there are several logistical and handling challenges associated with measuring, assembling, cleaning, packaging, and shipping these delicate precision optics. This paper describes a collaborative effort between Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, the University of Cincinnati, and ZYGO Corporation for the design and manufacture of 48 fused silica optics (30 bars and 18 prisms) for the iTOP Detector. Details of the iTOP detector design that drove the challenging optical requirements are provided, along with material selection considerations. Since the optics are so large, precise, and delicate, special care had to be given to the selection of a manufacturing process capable of achieving the challenging optical and surface defect requirements on such large and high-aspect-ratio (66:1) components. A brief update on the current status and performance of these optics is also provided.

A pulsed neutron source is used to interrogate a target, producing secondary gammas and neutrons. In order to make good use of the relatively small number of gamma rays that emerge from the system after the neutron flash, our detector system must be both efficient in converting gamma rays to a detectable electronic signal and reasonably large in volume. Isotropic gamma rays are emitted from the target. These signals are converted to light within a large chamber of a liquid scintillator. To provide adequate time-of-flight separation between the gamma and neutron signals, the liquid scintillator is placed meters away from the target under interrogation. An acrylic PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate) light guide directs the emission light from the chamber into a 5-inch-diameter photomultiplier tube. However, this PMMA light guide produces a time delay for much of the light. Illumination design programs count rays traced from the source to a receiver. By including the index of refraction of the different materials that the rays pass through, the optical power at the receiver is calculated. An illumination design program can be used to optimize the optical material geometries to maximize the ray count and/or the receiver power. A macro was written to collect the optical path lengths of the rays and import them into a spreadsheet, where histograms of the time histories of the rays are plotted. This method allows optimization on the time response of different optical detector systems. One liquid scintillator chamber has been filled with a grid of reflective plates to improve its time response. Cylindrical detector geometries are more efficient.

Detectors made with semiconductors such as silicon can be efficiently used for detecting and imaging neutrons when coated with suitable materials. They detect the charged reaction products resulting from the interaction of thermal neutrons with materials with high capture cross section like ¹⁰B, ⁶Li, and ⁶LiF. This work describes the performance of a thermal neutron detector system, GAMBE, which is based on silicon sensors and a layer of neutron-sensitive material, such as a lithium fluoride film or a lithium-6 foil, in a sandwich configuration. This arrangement has a total detection efficiency of 4 ± 2 %, 7 ± 1 %, and12 ± 1 % for 7 μm 6LiF film, 40 μm and 70 μm ⁶Li foil respectively. Also, it enhances the rejection of fake hits using a simple coincidence method. The coincidence that defines a true neutron hit is the simultaneous signal recorded by the two sensors facing the conversion layer (or foil). These coincidences provide a very good method for rejecting the spurious hits coming from gamma-rays, which are usually present in the neutron field under measurement. The GAMBE system yields a rejection factor at the level of 10⁸ allowing very pure neutron detection in high gamma background conditions. However, the price to pay is a reduction of the detection efficiency of 1 ± 1 % or 0:9 ± 0:3 % for 7 μm ⁶LiF film and 40 μm ⁶Li foil respectively.

The goal of this work is to develop and explore a novel small animal PET system that will advance our ability to detect, visualize, and quantify low concentrations of molecular probes. Key technologies of this work are: (1) A superior performance cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detector technology that uses solid-state semiconductor detectors, instead of scintillation crystals, to achieve ultra-high (≤ 1 mm3) resolution, 3-dimensional (3-D) event positioning and excellent energy resolution. (2) A novel edge-on arrangement of these semiconductor crystals in a four-sided panel geometry that facilitates an order of magnitude greater photon detection efficiency. The 3-D position sensitive dual-CZT detector module and readout electronics developed in our lab was scaled up to complete a significant portion of the final PET system. This sub-system was configured as two opposing detection panels containing a total of twelve 40 mm × 40 mm 5 mm monolithic CZT crystals for proof of concept. System-level characterization studies, including optimizing the trigger threshold of each channel's comparators, were performed. 68Ge and 137Cs radioactive isotopes were used to characterize the energy resolution of all 468 anode channels in the sub-system. The mean measured global 511~keV photopeak energy resolution over all anodes was found to be 7.35±1.75% FWHM after correction for photon interaction depth-dependent signal variation. The measured global time resolution was 24~ns FWHM after precise time caibration, and the intrinsic spatial resolution was 0.76~mm FWHM.

Using conventional scintillation detection, the fundamental limit in positron emission tomography (PET) annihilation photon pair coincidence time resolution is strongly dependent on the inherent temporal variances generated during the scintillation process, yielding an intrinsic physical limit of around 100 ps. On the other hand, modulation mechanisms of a material's optical properties as exploited in the optical telecommunications industry can be orders of magnitude faster. In this paper we borrow from the concept of optics pump-probe measurement to study whether ionizing radiation can also produce fast modulations of optical properties, which can be utilized as a novel method for radiation detection. We show that a refractive index modulation of approximately 5x10^-6 is induced by interactions in a cadmium telluride (CdTe) crystal from a 511 keV photon source. Furthermore, using additional radionuclide sources, we show that the amplitude of the optical modulation signal varies linearly with both the radiation source flux rate and average photon energy.

The past two decades have seen much progress in coincidence timing resolution (CTR) for time-of-flight (TOF) capable positron emission tomography (PET) systems. With these advancements, clinical TOF-PET systems have achieved sub-400 ps FWHM (full-width-at-half-maximum) CTR, providing decreased patient radiation dose, shorter scan time, improved lesion detectability, increased accuracy and precision of lesion uptake measurements, and less sensitivity to errors in data correction techniques (normalization, scatter, and attenuation corrections). An important and long-standing milestone for the TOF-PET community is 100 ps FWHM CTR. At that level of timing performance, more than a factor of five improvement in image signal-to-noise ratio is possible compared to non-TOF-PET, with the potential for a transformational impact on quantitative PET imaging. With advancements in silicon photomultiplier technologies, novel scintillation materials and signal processing techniques, sub-100 ps CTR has been reported for relatively short scintillation crystal elements (3 mm length). However, clinical PET requires scintillation crystal elements that are 20 mm length or greater to provide adequate stopping power for 511 keV photons. This increased crystal length reduces the light collection efficiency and increases the scintillation photon transit time variance, resulting in degraded CTR. Significant strides have been made in achieving sub-150 ps FWHM CTR with 20 mm length crystals in single pixel, bench top experiments. We will present perspectives on the entire detection chain, from luminescence to signal processing and time-pickoff to enable 100 ps CTR at the level of full clinically-relevant detector modules.

In the near-infrared-ray computed tomography (NIR-CT) scanner, NIR rays are produced from a light-emitting diode (LED) and detected using an NIR phototransistor (PT). The wavelengths of the LED peak intensity and the PT high sensitivity in the data table are both 940 nm. The photocurrents flowing through the PTR are converted into voltages using an emitter-follower circuit, and the output voltages are sent to a personal computer through an analog-digital converter. The NIR projection curves for tomography are obtained by repeated linear scans and rotations of the object, and the scanning is conducted in both directions of its movement.

We assessed the performance of a cadmium zinc telluride (CZT)-based Medipix3RX x-ray detector as a candidate for micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging. This technology was developed at CERN for the Large Hadron Collider. It features an array of 128 by 128, 110 micrometer square pixels, each with eight simultaneous threshold counters, five of which utilize real-time charge summing, significantly reducing the charge sharing between contiguous pixels. Pixel response curves were created by imaging a range of x-ray intensities by varying x-ray tube current and by varying the exposure time with fixed x-ray current. Photon energy-related assessments were made by flooding the detector with the tin foil filtered emission of an I-125 radioisotope brachytherapy seed and sweeping the energy threshold of each of the four charge-summed counters of each pixel in 1 keV steps. Long term stability assessments were made by repeating exposures over the course of one hour. The high properly-functioning pixel yield (99%), long term stability (linear regression of whole-chip response over one hour of acquisitions: y = -0.0038x + 2284; standard deviation: 3.7 counts) and energy resolution (2.5 keV FWHM (single pixel), 3.7 keV FWHM across the full image) make this device suitable for spectral micro-CT. The charge summing performance effectively reduced the measurement corruption caused by charge sharing which, when unaccounted for, shifts the photon energy assignment to lower energies, degrading both count and energy accuracy. Effective charge summing greatly improves the potential for calibrated, energy-specific material decomposition and K edge difference imaging approaches.

High-quality CdTe semiconductor detectors with both fine position resolution and high energy resolution hold great promise to improve measurement in various hard X-ray and gamma-ray imaging fields. ISAS/JAXA has been developing CdTe imaging detectors to meet scientific demands in latest celestial observation and severe environmental limitation (power consumption, vibration, radiation) in space for over 15 years. The energy resolution of imaging detectors with a CdTe Schottky diode of In/CdTe/Pt or Al/CdTe/Pt contact is a highlight of our development. We can extremely reduce a leakage current of devises, meaning it allows us to supply higher bias voltage to collect charges. The 3.2cm-wide and 0.75mm-thick CdTe double-sided strip detector with a strip pitch of 250 µm has been successfully established and was mounted in the latest Japanese X-ray satellite. The energy resolution measured in the test on ground was 2.1 keV (FWHM) at 59.5 keV. The detector with much finer resolution of 60 µm is ready, and it was actually used in the FOXSI rocket mission to observe hard X-ray from the sun. In this talk, we will focus on our research activities to apply space sensor technologies to such various imaging fields as medical imaging. Recent development of CdTe detectors, imaging module with pinhole and coded-mask collimators, and experimental study of response to hard X-rays and gamma-rays are presented. The talk also includes research of the Compton camera which has a configuration of accumulated Si and CdTe imaging detectors.

To obtain four tomograms with four different photon energy ranges simultaneously, we have developed a quad-energy Xray photon counter with a cadmium telluride (CdTe) detector and four sets of comparators and frequency-voltage converters (FVCs). X-ray photons are detected using the CdTe detector, and the event pulses from a shaping amplifier are sent to four comparators simultaneously to regulate four threshold energies of 20, 35, 50 and 65 keV. Using this counter, the energy ranges are 20-100, 35-100, 50-100 and 65-100 keV; the maximum energy corresponds to the tube voltage. Xray photons in the four ranges are counted using the comparators, and the logical pulses from the comparators are input to the FVCs. The outputs from the four FVCs are input to a personal computer through an analog-digital converter (ADC) to carry out quad-energy imaging. To observe contrast variations with changes in the threshold energy, we performed spectral computed tomography utilizing the quad-energy photon counter at a tube voltage of 100 kV and a current of 8.0 μA. In the spectral CT, four tomograms were obtained simultaneously with four energy ranges. The image contrast varied with changes in the threshold energy, and the exposure time for tomography was 9.8 min.

A new low profile gamma camera is being developed for use in a dual modality (x-ray transmission and gamma-ray emission) tomosynthesis system. Compared to the system’s current gamma camera, the new camera has a larger field of view (~20x25 cm) to better match the system’s x-ray detector (~23x29 cm), and is thinner (7.3 cm instead of 10.3 cm) permitting easier camera positioning near the top surface of the breast. It contains a pixelated NaI(Tl) array with a crystal pitch of 2.2 mm, which is optically coupled to a 4x5 array of Hamamatsu H8500C position sensitive photomultiplier tubes (PSPMTs). The manufacturer-provided connector board of each PSPMT was replaced with a custom designed board that a) reduces the 64 channel readout of the 8x8 electrode anode of the H8500C to 16 channels (8X and 8Y), b) performs gain non-uniformity correction, and c) reduces the height of the PSPMT-base assembly, 37.7 mm to 27.87 mm. The X and Y outputs of each module are connected in a lattice framework, and at two edges of this lattice, the X and Y outputs (32Y by 40X) are coupled to an amplifier/output board whose signals are fed via shielded ribbon cables to external ADCs. The camera uses parallel hole collimation. We describe the measured camera imaging performance, including intrinsic and extrinsic spatial resolution, detection sensitivity, uniformity of response, energy resolution for 140 keV gamma rays, and geometric linearity.

The Overhauser magnetometer, with its unique set of advantages, such as low power consumption, high precision and fast recording ability has been widely used in geophysical mineral and oil exploration, archeology, environmental survey, ordnance and weapons detection (UXO) and other earth science applications. Compared with the traditional proton magnetometer, which suffers from high power consumption and low precision, the Overhauser magnetometer excite the free radical solution in a cavity with RF signal to enhance nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Thus, RF resonator plays a crucial role in reducing power consumption and improving the accuracy of Overhauser magnetometer. There are a wide variety of resonators, but only two of them are chosen for Overhauser magnetometer: birdcage coil and coaxial resonator. In order to get the best RF cavity for Overhauser magnetometer sensor, both resonators are investigated here. Firstly, parameters of two RF resonators are calculated theoretically and simulated with Ansoft HFSS. The results indicate that birdcage coil is characterized by linear polarization while coaxial resonator is characterized by circular polarization. Besides, all RF fields are limited inside of the coaxial resonator while distributed both inside and outside of the birdcage coil. Then, the two resonators are practically manufactured based on the theoretical design. And the S-parameter and Smith chart of these resonators are measured with Agilent 8712ES RF network analyzer. The measured results indicate that the coaxial resonator has a much higher Q value(875) than the birdcage coil(70). All these results reveal a better performance for coaxial resonator. Finally, field experimental shows 0.074nT sensitivity for Overhauser magnetometer with coaxial resonator.