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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bentley, Julie (Julie L.) Field guide to lens design / Julie Bentley, Craig Olson. pages cm. – (The field guide series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8194-9164-0 1. Lenses--Design and construction. I. Olson, Craig 1971-II. Title. QC385.B43 2012 681'.423--dc23 2012035700 Published by SPIE P.O. Box 10 Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA Phone: +1.360.676.3290 Fax: +1.360.647.1445 Email: books@spie.org Web: http://spie.org The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the author. Every effort has been made to publish reliable and accurate information herein, but the publisher is not responsible for the validity of the information or for any outcomes resulting from reliance thereon. For the latest updates about this title, please visit the book's page on our website. SPIE Terms of Use: This SPIE eBook is DRM-free for your convenience. You may install this eBook on any device you own, but not post it publicly or transmit it to others. SPIE eBooks are for personal use only. For details, see the SPIE Terms of Use. To order a print version, visit SPIE. Printed in the United States of America. First printing
Introduction to the SeriesWelcome to the SPIE Field Guides—a series of publications written directly for the practicing engineer or scientist. Many textbooks and professional reference books cover optical principles and techniques in depth. The aim of the SPIE Field Guides is to distill this information, providing readers with a handy desk or briefcase reference that provides basic, essential information about optical principles, techniques, or phenomena, including definitions and descriptions, key equations, illustrations, application examples, design considerations, and additional resources. A significant effort will be made to provide a consistent notation and style between volumes in the series. Each SPIE Field Guide addresses a major field of optical science and technology. The concept of these Field Guides is a format-intensive presentation based on figures and equations supplemented by concise explanations. In most cases, this modular approach places a single topic on a page, and provides full coverage of that topic on that page. Highlights, insights, and rules of thumb are displayed in sidebars to the main text. The appendices at the end of each Field Guide provide additional information such as related material outside the main scope of the volume, key mathematical relationships, and alternative methods. While complete in their coverage, the concise presentation may not be appropriate for those new to the field. The SPIE Field Guides are intended to be living documents. The modular page-based presentation format allows them to be easily updated and expanded. We are interested in your suggestions for new Field Guide topics as well as what material should be added to an individual volume to make these Field Guides more useful to you. Please contact us at fieldguides@SPIE.org. John E. Greivenkamp, Series Editor Optical Sciences Center The University of Arizona The Field Guide SeriesKeep information at your fingertips with all of the titles in the Field Guide Series: Adaptive Optics, Second Edition, Robert Tyson & Benjamin Frazier Atmospheric Optics, Larry Andrews Binoculars and Scopes, Paul Yoder, Jr. & Daniel Vukobratovich Diffractive Optics, Yakov Soskind Geometrical Optics, John Greivenkamp Illumination, Angelo Arecchi, Tahar Messadi, & John Koshel Image Processing, Khan M. Iftekharuddin & Abdul Awwal Infrared Systems, Detectors, and FPAs, Second Edition, Arnold Daniels Interferometric Optical Testing, Eric Goodwin & Jim Wyant Laser Pulse Generation, Rüdiger Paschotta Lasers, Rüdiger Paschotta Microscopy, Tomasz Tkaczyk Optical Fabrication, Ray Williamson Optical Fiber Technology, Rüdiger Paschotta Optical Lithography, Chris Mack Optical Thin Films, Ronald Willey Optomechanical Design and Analysis, Katie Schwertz & James Burge Polarization, Edward Collett Probability, Random Processes, and Random Data Analysis, Larry Andrews Radiometry, Barbara Grant Special Functions for Engineers, Larry Andrews Spectroscopy, David Ball Terahertz Sources, Detectors, and Optics, Créidhe O’Sullivan & J. Anthony Murphy Visual and Ophthalmic Optics, Jim Schwiegerling Field Guide to Lens DesignOptical design has a long and storied history, from the magnifiers of antiquity, to the telescopes of Galileo and Newton at the onset of modern science, to the ubiquity of modern advanced optics. The process for designing lenses is often considered both an art and a science. While advancements in the field over the past two centuries have done much to transform it from the former category to the latter, much of the lens design process remains encapsulated in the experience and knowledge of industry veterans. This Field Guide provides a working reference for practicing physicists, engineers, and scientists for deciphering the nuances of basic lens design. Because the optical design process is historically (and quite practically) closely related to ray optics, this book is intended as a companion to the Field Guide to Geometrical Optics, in which first-order optics, thin lenses, and basic optical systems are treated in more detail. Note that this compact reference is not a substitute for a comprehensive technical library or the experience gained by sitting down and designing lenses. This material was developed over the course of several years for undergraduate and graduate lens design classes taught at the University of Rochester. It begins with an outline of the general lens design process before delving into aberrations, basic lens design forms, and optimization. An entire section is devoted to techniques for improving lens performance. Sections on tolerancing, stray light, and optical systems are followed by an appendix covering related topics such as optical materials, nonimaging concepts, designing for sampled imaging, and ray tracing fundamentals, among others. Thanks to both of our families—Danielle, Alison, Ben, Sarah, Julia, and especially our spouses, Jon and Kelly. The cats will now get fed, and all soccer parents beware! Julie Bentley University of Rochester Craig Olson L-3 Communications Table of ContentsGlossary of Symbols and Acronyms xi Fundamentals of Optical Design 1 Sign Conventions 1 Basic Concepts 2 Optical Design Process 3 Aperture and Wavelength Specifications 4 Resolution and Field of View 5 Packaging and Environment 6 Wave Aberration Function 7 Third-Order Aberration Theory 8 Spot Diagram and Encircled Energy 9 Transverse Ray Plot 10 Wavefront or OPD Plots 11 Point Spread Function and Strehl Ratio 12 MTF Basics 13 Using MTF in Lens Design 14 Defocus 15 Wavefront Tilt 16 Spherical Aberration 17 Coma 18 Field Curvature 19 Petzval Curvature 20 Astigmatism 21 Distortion 22 Primary Color and Secondary Color 23 Lateral Color and Spherochromatism 24 Higher-Order Aberrations 25 Intrinsic and Induced Aberrations 26 Design Forms 27 Selecting a Design Form: Refractive 27 Selecting a Design Form: Reflective 28 Singlets 29 Achromatic Doublets 30 Airspaced Doublets 31 Cooke Triplet 32 Double Gauss 33 Petzval Lens 34 Telephoto Lenses 35 Retrofocus and Wide-Angle Lenses 36 Refractive versus Reflective Systems 37 Obscurations 38 Newtonian and Cassegrain 39 Gregorian and Schwarzschild 40 Catadioptric Telescope Objectives 41 Unobscured Systems: Aperture Clearance 42 Unobscured Systems: Field Clearance 43 Three-Mirror Anastigmat 44 Reflective Triplet 45 Wide-Field Reflective Design Forms 46 Zoom Lens Fundamentals 47 Zoom Lens Design and Optimization 48 Improving a Design 49 Techniques for Improving an Optical Design 49 Angle of Incidence and Aplanatic Surfaces 50 Splitting and Compounding 51 Diffraction-Limited Performance 52 Thin Lens Layout 53 Lens Bending 54 Material Selection 55 Controlling the Petzval Sum 56 Stop Shift and Stop Symmetry 57 Telecentricity 58 Vignetting 59 Pupil Aberrations 60 Aspheres: Design 61 Aspheres: Fabrication 62 Gradient Index Materials 63 Diffractive Optics 64 Optimization 65 Optimization 65 Damped Least Squares 66 Global Optimization 67 Merit Function Construction 68 Choosing Effective Variables 69 Solves and Pickups 70 Defining Field Points 71 Pupil Sampling 72 Tolerancing 73 Tolerancing 73 Design Margin and Performance Budgets 74 Optical Prints 75 Radius of Curvature Tolerances 76 Surface Irregularity 77 Center Thickness and Wedge Tolerances 78 Material and Cosmetic Tolerances 79 Lens Assembly Methods 80 Assembly Tolerances 81 Compensators 82 Probability Distributions 83 Sensitivity Analysis 84 Performance Prediction 85 Monte Carlo Analysis 86 Environmental Analysis 87 Athermalization 88 Stray Light 89 Stray Light Analysis 89 Stray Light Reduction 90 Antireflection (AR) Coatings 91 Ghost Analysis 92 Cold Stop and Narcissus 93 Nonsequential Ray Tracing 94 Scattering and BSDF 95 Optical Systems 96 Photographic Lenses: Fundamentals 96 Photographic Lenses: Design Constraints 97 Visual Instruments and the Eye 98 Eyepiece Fundamentals 99 Eyepiece Design Forms 100 Telescopes 101 Microscopes 102 Microscope Objectives 103 Relays 104 Appendix: Optical Fundamentals 105 Index of Refraction and Dispersion 105 Optical Materials: Glasses 106 Optical Materials: Polymers/Plastics 107 Optical Materials: Ultraviolet and Infrared 108 Snell’s Law and Ray Tracing 109 Focal Length, Power, and Magnification 110 Aperture Stop and Field Stop 111 Entrance and Exit Pupils 112 Marginal and Chief Rays 113 Zernike Polynomials 114 Conic Sections 115 Diffraction Gratings 116 Optical Cements and Coatings 117 Detectors: Sampling 118 Detectors: Resolution 119 The Lagrange Invariant and Étendue 120 Illumination Design 121 Equation Summary 122 Biography 127 Index 129 Glossary of Symbols and AcronymsA Area AOI Angle of incidence AR Antireflection BBAR Broadband antireflection coating BFL Back focal length BFS Best fit sphere BRDF Bidirectional reflectance distribution function BSDF Bidirectional scattering distribution function BTDF Bidirectional transmittance distribution function c Surface curvature C Lens conjugate factor CA Clear aperture CCD Charge-coupled device CDF Cumulative distribution function CGH Computer-generated hologram CMOS Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor CRA Chief ray angle CT Center thickness CTE Coefficient of thermal expansion CTF Contrast transfer function d Airspace d Thickness DLS Damped least squares d n/d T Thermo-optic coefficient DOE Diffractive optical element EFL Effective focal length EPD Entrance pupil diameter ESF Edge-spread function ETD Edge thickness difference f Focal length f/# f-number or relative aperture FEA Finite-element analysis FFL Front focal length FFOV Full field of view FFT Fast Fourier transform FOV Field of view GQ Gaussian quadrature GRIN Gradient index h, Object/image height H Lagrange invariant H Normalized field coordinate HFOV Half field of view HO Higher order HOE Holographic optical element HR High-reflection i, Angle of incidence w.r.t. surface normal i, ia Marginal ray angle w.r.t. surface normal Chief ray angle w.r.t. surface normal ID Inner diameter of a lens barrel or mount IR Infrared L Radiance LOS Line of sight LR Limiting resolution LSF Line spread function LWIR Long-wave infrared m Diffraction order m Magnification MP Magnifying power (magnifier or telescope) MTF Modulation transfer function MWIR Midwave infrared n, Index of refraction n(z), n(r) Gradient index profile function NA Numerical aperture NITD Narcissus-induced temperature difference NRT Nonsequential ray tracing NUC Nonuniformity correction OAP Off-axis parabola OAR Off-axis rejection OD Outer diameter (of a lens) OPD Optical path difference OTF Optical transfer function p Pixel pitch in sampled detector arrays P Partial dispersion Probability distribution function PSF Point spread function PSNIT Point-source normalized irradiance transmittance PST Point-source transmittance P–V Peak to valley Q Sampling ratio r Radial surface coordinate R, ROC Radius of curvature RI Relative illumination RMS Root mean square RSS Root sum square RT Reflective triplet s, Object/image distance SA Spherical aberration SLR Single-lens reflex t Thickness or airspace T Temperature TIR Total indicator runout TIR Total internal reflection TIS Total integrated scatter TMA Three-mirror anastigmat TML Three mirror long u, Paraxial ray angles w.r.t. optical axis u, ua Marginal ray angle w.r.t. optical axis Chief ray angle w.r.t. optical axis UV Ultraviolet V Abbe number W Wave aberration function Wi jk Wavefront aberration coefficient WD Working distance y, ya Marginal ray height at a surface Chief ray height at a surface z Optical axis z(r) Surface sag/profile function Zn Zernike polynomial coefficient β Lens shape factor Δλ Wavelength range or bandwidth δz Defocus ε Obscuration ratio ε, εx , εy Transverse ray error Angle of incidence/refraction θ Half field of view θ Pupil azimuthal coordinate κ Conic constant λ Wavelength λ0 Center wavelength ρ, ρx , ρy Normalized radial pupil coordinate Φ System power Element or surface power Merit or penalty function |
CITATIONS
Lens design
Optical design
Optical instrument design
Geometrical optics
Visual optics
Adaptive optics
Atmospheric optics
