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Based on the SPIE bestseller The Art of Radiometry by James M. Palmer and Barbara G. Grant, this Field Guideprovides a practical, hands-on approach to the subject that the engineer, scientist, or student can use in real time. Readers of the earlier work will recognize similar topics in condensed form, along with many new figures and a chapter on photometry. Written from a systems engineering perspective, this book covers topics in optical radiation propagation, material properties, sources, detectors, system components, measurement, calibration, and photometry. Appendices provide material on SI units, conversion factors, source luminance data, and many other subjects. The book's organization and extensive collection of diagrams, tables, and graphs will enable the reader to efficiently identify and apply relevant information to radiometric problems arising amid the demands of today's fast-paced technical environment. I gratefully acknowledge the contributions to my education and career from three professors of Optical Sciences at the University of Arizona, gentlemen all. They are the late Jim Palmer (1937-2007), who mentored me in radiometry for many years and provided me the opportunity to complete The Art of Radiometry; Emeritus Professor Phil Slater, who selected me as a graduate student and trained me in remote sensing, and who continues to encourage and support me; and Eustace Dereniak, who generously shared his knowledge from the very start, provided me my first opportunities to teach, and has strongly supported my career for more than twenty years. To all, my heartfelt thanks. This book is dedicated to my family and particularly to the memory of my father, William Grant of Chicago, Illinois, a US Navy veteran of WWII who taught me to play the "Garryowen" as soon as my fingers could reach a piano keyboard. Barbara G. Grant September 2011 |
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Grant, Barbara G. (Barbara Geri), 1957- Field guide to radiometry / Barbara, Grant. p. cm. – (The field guide series ; FG23) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8194-8827-5 1. Radiation–Measurement. I. Title. QD117.R3G73 2011 535–dc23 2011033224 Published by SPIE P.O. Box 10 Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA Phone: +1.360.676.3290 Fax: +1.360.647.1445 Email: books@spie.org Web: http://spie.org The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the author. Every effort has been made to publish reliable and accurate information herein, but the publisher is not responsible for the validity of the information or for any outcomes resulting from reliance thereon. For the latest updates about this title, please visit the book's page on our website. Printed in the United States of America. First printing Introduction to the SeriesWelcome to the SPIE Field Guides—a series of publications written directly for the practicing engineer or scientist. Many textbooks and professional reference books cover optical principles and techniques in depth. The aim of the SPIE Field Guides is to distill this information, providing readers with a handy desk or briefcase reference that provides basic, essential information about optical principles, techniques, or phenomena, including definitions and descriptions, key equations, illustrations, application examples, design considerations, and additional resources. A significant effort will be made to provide a consistent notation and style between volumes in the series. Each SPIE Field Guide addresses a major field of optical science and technology. The concept of these Field Guides is a format-intensive presentation based on figures and equations supplemented by concise explanations. In most cases, this modular approach places a single topic on a page, and provides full coverage of that topic on that page. Highlights, insights, and rules of thumb are displayed in sidebars to the main text. The appendices at the end of each Field Guide provide additional information such as related material outside the main scope of the volume, key mathematical relationships, and alternative methods. While complete in their coverage, the concise presentation may not be appropriate for those new to the field. The SPIE Field Guides are intended to be living documents. The modular page-based presentation format allows them to be easily updated and expanded. We are interested in your suggestions for new Field Guide topics as well as what material should be added to an individual volume to make these Field Guides more useful to you. Please contact us at fieldguides@SPIE.org. John E. Greivenkamp, Series Editor College of Optical Sciences The University of Arizona The Field Guide SeriesKeep information at your fingertips with all of the titles in the Field Guide Series: Field Guide to Adaptive Optics, Robert Tyson & Benjamin Frazier Atmospheric Optics, Larry Andrews Binoculars and Scopes, Paul Yoder, Jr. & Daniel Vukobratovich Diffractive Optics, Yakov Soskind Geometrical Optics, John Greivenkamp Illumination, Angelo Arecchi, Tahar Messadi, & John Koshel Infrared Systems, Detectors, and FPAs, Second Edition, Arnold Daniels Interferometric Optical Testing, Eric Goodwin & Jim Wyant Laser Pulse Generation, Rüdiger Paschotta Lasers, Rüdiger Paschotta Microscopy, Tomasz Tkaczyk Optical Fabrication, Ray Williamson Optical Fiber Technology, Rüdiger Paschotta Optical Lithography, Chris Mack Optical Thin Films, Ronald Willey Polarization, Edward Collett Radiometry, Barbara Grant Special Functions for Engineers, Larry Andrews Spectroscopy, David Ball Visual and Ophthalmic Optics, Jim Schwiegerling IntroductionBased on the SPIE bestseller The Art of Radiometry by James M. Palmer and Barbara G. Grant, this Field Guide provides a practical, hands-on approach to the subject that the engineer, scientist, or student can use in real time. Readers of the earlier work will recognize similar topics in condensed form, along with many new figures and a chapter on photometry. Written from a systems engineering perspective, this book covers topics in optical radiation propagation, material properties, sources, detectors, system components, measurement, calibration, and photometry. Appendices provide material on SI units, conversion factors, source luminance data, and many other subjects. The book’s organization and extensive collection of diagrams, tables, and graphs will enable the reader to efficiently identify and apply relevant information to radiometric problems arising amid the demands of today’s fast-paced technical environment. I gratefully acknowledge the contributions to my education and career from three professors of Optical Sciences at the University of Arizona, gentlemen all. They are the late Jim Palmer (1937–2007), who mentored me in radiometry for many years and provided me the opportunity to complete The Art of Radiometry; Emeritus Professor Phil Slater, who selected me as a graduate student and trained me in remote sensing, and who continues to encourage and support me; and Eustace Dereniak, who generously shared his knowledge from the very start, provided me my first opportunities to teach, and has strongly supported my career for more than twenty years. To all, my heartfelt thanks. This book is dedicated to my family and particularly to the memory of my father, William Grant of Chicago, Illinois, a US Navy veteran of WWII who taught me to play the “Garryowen” as soon as my fingers could reach a piano keyboard. Barbara G. Grant September 2011 Table of ContentsGlossary of Symbols and Notation xi Introduction to Radiometry 1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 1 The Basics 2 Propagation of Optical Radiation 3 Plane and Solid Angles 3 Projected Area and Projected Solid Angle 4 f/# and Numerical Aperture 5 Radiometric Quantities Summarized 6 Photon Quantities 7 Spectral Radiant Quantities 8 Radiance, Radiant Exitance, and Irradiance 9 Exitance–Radiance Relationship 10 Intensity 11 Isotropic and Lambertian Sources 12 Inverse Square Law of Irradiance 13 Cosine3 and Cosine4 Laws of Irradiance 14 Throughput and Its Invariance 15 Area and Solid Angle Products 16 Basic Radiance and Radiance Invariance 17 The Equation of Radiative Transfer 18 Configuration Factors 19 Power Transfer: Point Source 20 Power Transfer: Extended Source 21 Power Transfer: Field Lens Added 22 Irradiance from a Lambertian Disk 23 Irradiance from a Lambertian Sphere 24 The Integrating Sphere 25 Camera Equation and Image Plane Irradiance 26 Radiometric Properties of Materials 27 Overview of Material Properties 27 Transmission 28 Reflection 29 Absorption and the Conservation of Energy 30 Emission 31 Specular Transmissivity and Reflectivity 32 Single-Surface Illustrations 33 More on Specular Propagation 34 Transmission: Absorbing and Reflecting Materials 35 Materials as Targets 36 Optical Material Selection Considerations 37 Generation of Optical Radiation 38 Planck’s Law 38 Stefan–Boltzmann and Wien Displacement Laws 39 Rayleigh–Jeans Law and Wien Approximation 40 Radiation Laws in Terms of Photons 41 Kirchoff’s Law 42 Natural Sources 43 Lambert–Bouguer–Beer Law and Langley Plot 44 Artificial Sources 45 Luminescent Mechanisms 46 Some Luminescent Sources 47 Detectors of Optical Radiation 48 Detector Types 48 Detector Definitions 49 More Detector Definitions 50 Detector Figures of Merit 51 Noise Concepts and Definitions 52 The Most Unpleasant Noises 53 More Unpleasant Noises 54 Thermal Detectors 55 Thermoelectric Detectors 56 The Bolometer 57 Pyroelectric Detectors 58 Photon Detectors 59 Photoconductive Detectors 60 Photoemissive Detectors 61 Photovoltaic Detectors 62 Photovoltaic Current and Performance 63 Detector Interfacing 64 Single and Multiple Detectors 65 Detector Array Architectures 66 Choosing a Detector 67 Radiometric System Components 68 Choppers and Radiation References 68 Baffles and Cosine Correctors 69 Spectral Separation Mechanisms 70 Prisms and Gratings 71 Filters 72 Calibration and Measurement 73 Radiometric Calibration Basics 73 Radiometric Calibration Philosophy 74 Distant Small Source Calibration 75 Collimators and the Distant Small Source 76 More on Collimators 77 Extended Source Calibrations 78 Other Calibration Methods 79 The Measurement Equation 80 Errors in Measurements 81 Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Measurement Error 82 The Range Equation 83 Radiometric Temperatures 84 Photometry 85 Photometric Quantities 85 Human Visual Response 86 Color 87 Sources and the Eye’s Response 88 Appendices 89 SI Base Quantities, Prefixes, and Uncertainty Reporting 89 SI Base Quantities 90 SI Prefixes 91 Concise Notation and Uncertainty Reporting 92 Physical Constants: 2010 CODATA Recommended Values 93 Source Luminance Values 94 Astronomical Sources 95 Practical Sources 96 More Source Values 97 Illuminance of Various Sources 109 Luminous Intensity Values 110 Astronomical Conversion Factors 112 Solid Angle Relationships Rays, Stops, and Pupils Diffraction Action Spectra and Optical Radiation Regions Equation Summary Biography Glossary of Symbols and NotationAp Projected area As Source area AS Aperture stop Asph Sphere surface area B Effective noise bandwidth BLIP Background-limited infrared photodetector BRDF Bidirectional reflectance distribution function BTDF Bidirectional transmittance distribution function c Velocity of optical radiation in vacuum C Coulomb C Capacitance c1 First radiation constant c2 Second radiation constant CCD Charge-coupled device CID Charge-injection device CMOS Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor CTE Charge-transfer efficiency d Distance D Detectivity D Entrance pupil diameter D∗ Specific detectivity D∗∗ Specific normalized detectivity Specific detectivity in photons DQE Detective quantum efficiency E Irradiance Ef Fermi level Eg Gap energy Eq Photon irradiance Eν Illuminance f Focal length f Ratio of port area to integrating sphere area F Configuration factor F Noise factor f/# F-number f/#′ Working f/# fc Cutoff frequency Fc Chopping factor FOV Field of view FS Field stop fT Thermal cutoff frequency G Photoconductive gain G Radiant power gain h Planck’s constant H Heat capacity H Radiant exposure Hq Photon exposure Hν Photometric exposure I Radiant intensity
Average photocurrent due to mean carrier number Idc Direct current IFOV Instantaneous field of view in Noise current Iq Photon intensity is Signal current Iv Luminous intensity j k Boltzmann’s constant K Thermal conductance Km Luminous efficacy (photopic) Luminous efficacy (scotopic) Ks 1/f noise source-dependent constant l Source maximum linear dimension L Radiance Lq Photon radiance LSB Least significant bit Lv Luminance m Airmass m Grating order number m Magnification M Radiant exitance mp Pupil magnification Mq Photon exitance Mv Luminous exitance n Number of bits in a digital word n Refractive index n Surface normal vector N Mean number of carriers N Number of illuminated grating grooves Average number of photons NA Numerical aperture ND Neutral density NEI Noise equivalent irradiance NEP Noise equivalent power NF Noise figure NP Entrance pupil p Pyroelectric coefficient Ps Spontaneous polarization q Electronic charge Q, Qe Radiant energy Qp, Qq Photon energy Qrp Resolving power Qv Luminous energy r Radius of circle or sphere R Range R Reflectance factor R Resistance Responsivity RA Resistance-area product Irradiance responsivity RL Detector load resistance Radiance responsivity Photon responsivity RT Thermal resistance Power responsivity S Seebeck coefficient SNR Signal-to-noise ratio t Time T Absolute temperature T Throughput Tc Curie temperature Tn Noise temperature ν Velocity of optical radiation in a medium VB Detector bias voltage νj Johnson noise voltage νn Noise voltage vrms Root-mean-square voltage Vs, vs Signal voltage V(λ) Photopic visual response Scotopic visual response x Path length XP Exit pupil X, Y, Z Tristimulus values based on the 1931 CIE Standard Observer Z Impedance α Absorptance α 1/f noise expression constant Spectral absorption coefficient β 1/f noise expression constant β Temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) ε Emittance η Responsive quantum efficiency θ Angle of incidence, reflection, refraction θ Angle from normal incidence or emittance Θ1/2 Half-angle of illumination cone κ(λ) Spectral extinction coefficient λ Wavelength λ0 Wavelength in vacuum λc Cutoff wavelength μ Carrier mobility Π Peltier coeffficient ρ Reflectance ρp Polarized reflectivity parallel component ρs Polarized reflectivity perpendicular component ρss Single-surface reflectivity σ Standard deviation σ Stefan–Boltzmann constant σ2 Variance σe Electrical conductivity τ Time constant τ Transmittance τ0(λ) Spectral optical thickness τatm Atmospheric transmittance τi Internal transmittance τl Carrier lifetime τlens Lens transmittance τo Optical transmittance τp Polarized transmissivity parallel component τs Polarized transmissivity perpendicular component τss Single-surface transmissivity τT Thermal time constant ϕ Rotational angle ϕ Work function in a photoemissive detector ϕ0 Potential barrier height in a photovoltaic detector Φ Radiant power Φq Photon flux Φv Luminous power ω Radian frequency (2πf) ω Solid angle Ω Projected solid angle Ωo Unit projected solid angle |
Front Matter
CITATIONS
Sensors
Radiometry
Calibration
Geometrical optics
Radio optics
Visual optics
Photometry
