Thin films of gold (Au) have found use in various optoelectronic applications due to their unique optical properties. Depending on the film morphology, the optical response can display localized surface plasmon resonance related to isolated metal clusters and a Drude-like response emerging from a connected metal network. Therefore, Au films, especially those with nearly percolated morphology display a very broad optical response that can be drastically varied by control of the fabrication conditions or post-deposition treatments. In this study, we investigate the optical and morphological changes observed in thin Au films subjected to thermal annealing as potential building units for optical-based thermal sensors. Three different film morphologies (island film, nearly percolated film, and compact film) are obtained by controlling the amount of deposited metal. The evolution of morphological properties of these three types of films upon thermal annealing follows different mechanisms, resulting in enhanced optical changes in different spectral regions. In addition, we show that the incorporation of nearly percolated films in multilayer interference coatings can significantly boost their potential as irreversible temperature sensors. Overall, we show that the unique morphological changes induced by annealing combined with interference effects hold great promise for thermal sensing.
Integrated photonic sensors on silicon nitride platforms are at the forefront of developments for decentralized, real-time detection of biological and chemical substances. Their increasingly precise sensitivity enables broad applications in the medical, pharmaceutical, and chemical sectors. However, attention to the adverse effect of optical loss is often inadequately addressed, limiting the available intensity in the transmission spectrum, thereby impinging on the achievable detection limits. In this computational study, we address the optimization of a microring-based resonator system, harnessing a recently formulated semi-analytical model of surface-roughness-induced scattering for waveguide-based loss optimization. Our focus extends beyond considering sensitivity to propose a comprehensive figure of merit for resonator design by including the quality factor influenced by the coupling coefficient. Simultaneously, we demonstrate how strategic adjustments of gap-coupling metrics can result in significant enhancements in resonator performance. The wavelength range of the target application is set to be around 850nm, focusing on transverse-electric polarization, as well as transverse-magnetic polarization of the input light. The dimensions of the waveguides have been established considering previous studies, with a width falling within 300 and 800nm. Furthermore, the nitride layer thickness will vary between 200 and 400nm, the ring radius between 20 and 60μm and the gap between 200 and 800nm. These parameters form the resonator’s design’s foundational geometry and layer properties. This work emphasizes the need for a holistic design process to fully leverage the potential of integrated photonic devices.
This paper presents a detailed investigation into the propagation loss characteristics of silicon nitride strip waveguides at an 850 nm wavelength, utilizing a random forest model. The primary aim is to optimize low-loss conditions in photonic integrated circuits (PICs). To achieve this, a systematic 2x3 full factorial design of experiments is implemented, focusing on different layers within the PIC framework. The study revolves around a critical examination of how the waveguide width influences propagation loss. Leveraging the random forest model, known for its high precision in complex data analysis, we delve into the correlation between various design elements and their impact on loss. This methodology not only aids in pinpointing the pivotal factors affecting loss but also elucidates their interplay, particularly emphasizing the role of waveguide width. One of the key contributions of this research is the identification of optimal material configurations that significantly reduce loss. This is instrumental in enhancing the efficiency of PICs, a crucial aspect for their performance in applications such as optical communications and photonic computing. Our approach uniquely combines empirical data analysis with machine learning techniques, offering a novel perspective in photonic engineering research. The findings of this study not only shed light on the complex dynamics of waveguide design but also pave the way for the development of more efficient and effective photonic systems. This research stands to make a significant impact in the field, presenting a comprehensive methodology for designing low-loss silicon nitride strip waveguides, thereby contributing to the advancement of photonic technologies.
This study introduces an innovative chip-upending technique to enhance the quality of silicon nitride waveguides by minimizing sidewall roughness, which is critical for reducing optical propagation losses. By reflowing the resist after development, we effectively control the resist expansion effect typically observed in standard procedures. Our analysis indicates that this method can decrease line edge roughness (LER). We employ atomic force microscopy (AFM) to measure the LER of the resist and the waveguide sidewalls via a special tilting technique, ensuring precise characterization of the surface topography. The fabrication is carried out by the choice of a suitable DOE for ensuring the statistical robustness in the evaluation process. Additionally, we conduct propagation and bend loss measurements at 850 nm across waveguides of various widths, with thicknesses ranging from 200 to 400 nm. These measurements in correlation with the roughness analysis confirms that sidewall roughness is indeed smoothed, resulting in notable improvements in light propagation efficiency. The versatility of the low-temperature reflow process is further demonstrated by its compatibility with several waveguide geometry alterations . The inclusion of tree-based modeling in optimizing relevant parameters in the fabrication, foremost the reflow parameters, thereby contributing to a more efficient and controlled reflow process. The findings suggest that our approach can be universally adopted for the fabrication of low-loss waveguides in photonic integrated circuits, with necessary wafer-to-wafer stability.
This study provides an in-depth evaluation of two fundamental techniques for fabricating sensing windows on silicon nitride platforms: a traditional etching strategy using reactive ion etching (RIE) combined with wet etching, and a lift-off-based process in which the top cladding material is deposited onto a suitable resist which is subsequently stripped of the distinct sensing waveguides. The analysis, based on a side-by-side comparison, meticulously examines the effectiveness of these methods. Key evaluation metrics include propagation and bending loss in the sensing windows, process robustness, and uniformity of critical dimensions and heights across the wafer. This will provide a comprehensive understanding of the strengths, weaknesses, and potential application limitations of each technique. An integral part of the study is the careful revision of the waveguide material stack to address specific challenges and applications. This precise tuning and adaptation of the material stack serve as a proxy for the demands likely to be encountered in real-world applications. The conservative etching technique has the advantage that it can be easily combined with subsequent facet etching processes for edge coupling approaches. Conversely, the lift-off resist based approach, despite its relative complexity and sensitivity to high-temperature deposition on the resist, reduces the negative impact of the process on surface roughness and sidewall angles. The knowledge gained from this research provides valuable guidance in the selection of appropriate fabrication techniques for specific silicon nitride sensor applications to increase the robustness of the processing steps for potential mass production stability.
Growing awareness of the adverse health effects of air pollution has increased the demand for reliable, sensitive, and mass-producible sensor systems. Photothermal interferometry has shown great promise for sensitive, selective, and miniaturized gas sensing solutions. This work describes the development of a macroscopic photothermal sensor system with a sensor head consisting of a low-cost, custom-made, and fiber-coupled Fabry–Pérot etalon. The sensor was tested with NO2, achieving a 3σ limit of detection (LOD) of approximately 370 ppbv (1 s). Exhibiting little drift, a LOD of 15 ppbv is achievable for 200 s integration time. Compensating for the excitation power, the normalized noise equivalent absorption was calculated to be 1.4×10−8 cm−1WHz. The sensor system is not limited to NO2 but can be used for any gas or aerosol species by exchanging the excitation laser source.
In the burgeoning field of sensing, Photonic Integrated Circuits (PICs) are essential tools for precise, high-speed detection of biological markers and particles. The performance of these biosensors is intricately linked to the losses of PICs, which is largely determined by the configuration of their core and cladding layers. Recognizing this, the present study ventures into the optimization of these layers in Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) PICs, employing an innovative approach using Classification and Regression Trees (CART). The study identifies propagation and bend losses, two critical factors affecting PIC performance, as response variables. In contrast, the physical characteristics of the core and cladding layers are considered as input variables. To ensure the robustness and completeness of the study, an appropriate Design of Experiments (DOE) is implemented, meticulously exploring possible combinations of layer configurations. Following the DOE, the CART algorithm is then applied to this design space, whereas the losses act as response variables. The algorithm functions by partitioning the design space into regions associated with specific layer configurations and iteratively refines these partitions based on their corresponding impact on propagation and bend losses. The end results of this process is the statistical information about the layer stacks which come with significantly low propagation and bend losses, thereby enhancing PIC performance. This improvement in performance directly translates to heightened sensitivity and specificity in biosensors. Further, the application of the CART methodology has demonstrated its potential to streamline the PIC design process, enhancing its robustness, an aspect critical for practical implementation in fabrication environments.
Growing awareness of the adverse health effects of nitrogen oxides has increased the demand for reliable, sensitive and mass-producible sensor systems. Photothermal interferometry has shown great promise towards sensitive, selective and miniaturized sensor solutions. This work describes the development of a macroscopic photothermal sensor system with a sensor head consisting of a low-cost, custom-made and fiber-coupled Fabry-P´erot etalon. The sensor was tested with NO2, achieving a 3σ limit of detection of 2.5 ppmv (1 s). Exhibiting little drift, a limit of detection of 100 ppbv is achievable for 200 s integration time. Compensating for the low excitation power, the normalized noise equivalent absorption was calculated to be 2.2 × 10−8 cm−1W/ √ Hz. The sensor system is not limited to NO2, but can be used for any gas or aerosol species, by exchanging the excitation laser source.
Integrated photonic sensors are promising devices to detect the presence of biological and chemical substances. Especially, silicon photonics features scalable, compact, and robust applications in, inter alia, the medical, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries for decentralized, real-time sensing. In an effort to continuously lower the limit of detection and build ultra precise devices, their sensitivity is steadily increased. The optical loss, however, is often neglected. This reduces the available intensity in the transmission spectrum and, thus, restricts the achievable limit of detection. We optimize a bimodal waveguide interferometer for environmental sensing based on a silicon nitride platform. Thereby, we combine considerations regarding the sensitivity, optical loss, and coupling into a figure of merit to design the single-mode and the bimodal platforms. To that end, we utilize a recently developed model of surface-roughness-induced scattering to include the estimated propagation loss in the design process. This model uses the simulated modes and measured autocovariance in the surface roughness for an estimation of the propagation loss in the real platform. We observe that considering the optical loss favors platforms of medium height for a quasi-transverse-electric polarization. In consequence, we demonstrate drastic changes in the design choices compared to pure sensitivity-focused waveguide platforms. Thus, we show that a holistic design process is essential to fully utilize the potential of integrated photonic devices. Ultimately, we are convinced that this methodology will be beneficial in making integrated photonic sensors more sensitive.
Integrated photonics features applications in high-speed telecommunication, computing, and sensing. These devices are ultimately limited by the optical loss occurring in the waveguide structures. One of its primary sources is surface-roughness- induced scattering and bend-losses. Surface roughness is unavoidably introduced during deposition, mainly during etching and lithographic steps. In photonic integrated circuits, tight bends enable a compact footprint yet increase the mode mismatch loss , radiation loss and scattering loss. Previously, the bend losses were estimated from a parametric model. However, it lacks flexibility w.r.t. the waveguide platform. We apply a recently developed model of the surface-roughness-induced scattering in guided-mode systems to substantiate the dependence of the scattering loss on the bend-radius for waveguides based on a silicon nitride platform. The model incorporates the surface roughness via its autocorrelation. Further, it inherently considers the overlap of the modes with the roughness. As waveguide material, we used both plasma-enhanced CVD silicon nitride as a low-temperature, back-end-compatible process, and low-pressure CVD silicon nitride, as a high-temperature frontend process. As bottom and top cladding, we deposited high-density plasma (HDP) and sputtered silicon oxide, respectively. The latter offers flexibility to adapt the platform for sensing purposes. We evaluate different waveguide widths, bend radii, and wavelengths in the visible and near-infrared ranges. We set the observed propagation losses into context with estimated absorption, scattering, and mode-overlap loss sources and point to their shifting importance at the measured wavelengths. We believe that this model allows to increase our knowledge about the various aspects of loss in guided mode systems and predict the propagation loss based on foregoing absorption and roughness measurements.
Integrated photonic biosensors constitute an important technology for the growing point-of-care paradigm. Due to their high sensitivity and ample design freedom, interferometric sensors are an attractive embodiment for this application. In an effort to continuously lower the limit of detection and build ultra-precise devices, the sensitivity is steadily increased. Thereby, the limiting factors are optical loss, noise, and cross-sensitivities to external perturbations. We present a novel design method for integrated interferometers to inherently compensate for the cross-sensitivity to bulk perturbations in the matrix’s refractive index. We exploit that the analyte induces a localized effect when binding to the bioreceptors. By using different guided modes with engineered phase signals in the interferometer, we distinguish between analyte binding and bulk perturbations. To first order, their optical path may be designed such that the relative change due to bulk perturbations vanishes while sensitivity to the analyte is retained. We demonstrate this methodology via simulations of a Mach-Zehnder-interferometer for an immunosensor based on a silicon nitride platform. We show that this design may be easily incorporated in most conventional layouts, due to an excess of degrees of freedom, and could further be applied in fiber-based devices. In this manner, interferometers utilizing guided modes could compensate cross-talk for perturbations in the matrix’s temperature, pH, or general chemical composition. We believe that eliminating these limiting external impacts could help integrated photonic biosensors to overcome current issues with reliability and robustness.
Micro-ring resonators (MRR) are basic photonic components, which serve as crucial building blocks for a variety of devices, e.g. integrated sensors, external cavity lasers, and high speed photonic data transmitters. Silicon nitride photonic platforms are particularly appealing in this field of application, since this waveguide material enables on-chip photonic circuitry with (ultra-) low losses in the NIR as well as across the whole visible spectral range. In this contribution we investigate key performance properties of MRRs in the wavelength range around 850 nm, such as free spectral range (FSR), quality factor (Q factor) and extinction ratio. We systematically investigate a large parameter space given by the MRR radii, coupling gaps between ring and bus waveguide, as well as waveguide width. Furthermore, we compare key properties such as the Q factor between low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) Si3N4 platforms and find enhanced values for LPCVD ring resonators reaching nearly a Q factor of 106.The fabrication is carried out with standard CMOS foundry equipment, utilizing photolithography and reactive ion etching on 250 nm thick silicon nitride films. As cladding material, high density PECVD silicon oxide is deposited prior to the waveguide onto bare silicon and a sputtered oxide serves as upper cladding. With this process toolbox full CMOS backend compatibility is achieved when considering only PECVD Si3N4 waveguide material. In terms of manufacturability, special focus is put on the die-to-die as well as on wafer-to-wafer variability of the performance parameters, which is crucial when considering mass production of MRR devices. Finally, the experimental findings are compared to finite difference time domain (FDTD) simulations of the MRR circuits revealing excellent agreement when considering the manufacturing variability.
Monitoring the temperature of lithium-ion batteries (LiB) is crucial for safe operation. The degradation of a LiB is highly dependent on temperature. It is desirable to keep the LiB within a temperature window between 15 °C and 35 °C. Otherwise, enhanced degradation will take place. So far, only the surface temperature of a LiB at a single point is measured, but the internal temperature can be significantly higher during operation. In this work, we integrated fiber Bragg grating (FBG) temperature sensors into lithium-ion pouch cells and evaluated the stability of the sensitivity of the FBG sensors over four months. Two prototype pouch cells were manufactured each with two fibers. Each fiber has three FBGs inscribed, hence there are six temperature measurement points per pouch cell. The FBG temperature sensors comprise a polyimide-coated fiber with the three inscribed FBGs and a polyimide-coated fused silica capillary. The capillary mitigates the influence of external strain on the FBGs because the fiber can move freely in the capillary due to the single mounting point on one side of the capillary. The sensitivity was measured once a month for a period of four months. Although, the Bragg wavelength changed over time, and baseline correction is required for reliable temperature calculation. The measurements show comparable stability of sensitivity over time with another publication.
The aim of the current work is to improve the response time of an optical readout based humidity sensor. Therefore, we present the application of nanoimprint lithography (NIL) on thin films which are deposited by initiated chemical vapor deposition (iCVD). Hydrogels are polymeric networks with the ability to swell after certain physical conditions change, which makes them very useful as sensing layers for optical devices. In the first step we used iCVD to deposit a humidity responsive hydrogel (here: pHEMA) as a planar thin film on sapphire substrates. To increase the effective surface area, we tried for the first time NIL on our hydrogel thin films with promising results: First, characterization with a SEM showed that NIL allows the design of large homogeneous areas of nanostructures without damaging the sensitive hydrogel thin film and having a great stability at ambient conditions. Second, NIL offers the benefit to build different geometries and sizes of nanostructures based on the requested application. For our first test we selected a simple line array structure, combined with an optical detection method as sensor principle. By choosing a specific structure to wavelength ratio the imprinted nanostructures act as a diffraction grating enabling a fast response time by increasing the effective sensing area. Since in our application the hydrogel works as the sensing element, we observed a humidity dependence behavior by measuring the intensity of the first order diffraction peak. Finally, the response time was a lot faster by using optical detection methods than commercial humidity sensors.
Optical sensors that utilize the evanescent field of an integrated waveguide are applied in a wide range of applications. Recently, evanescent field particle detectors based on dielectric strip waveguides were success- fully used for the detection of small particles (0 < 1 μm). We present optimizations of silicon nitride slab and strip waveguides based on numerical simulations, which maximize the evanescent field that interacts with the analyte such as particles. The fraction of the total light power that is transmitted in the evanes- cent region can be tuned by geometric parameters of the waveguide and the operation wavelength. We show that the optimum height of the slab waveguide scales linearly with the operation wavelength, which is in agreement with analytic results from literature. Moreover, linear correlations between the optimum waveguide geometry and wavelength could be derived for silicon nitride strip waveguides that are utilized for particle detection. The results for the optimum strip waveguide geometry are dependent on the target particle size. The derived geometries represent the optimum configuration for an evanescent field particle detector based on silicon nitride strip waveguides in order to exploit its full potential in terms of detection sensitivity. Enhanced sensitivities will be necessary to extend the detection range of evanescent field particle detectors down to small particles in the ultrafine regime (o≤ 100 nm).
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