Concentrix modules are based on III-V triple junction cells, a Fresnel lens array with a relatively small single lens
aperture of 5 square inch, and a cover and bottom plate made out of glass. The first installations were conducted in 2008
in Europe, later installations followed in the US, in East Asia, in the Arabian Peninsula, and in Africa. This paper gives
an overview of the performance of Soitec´s CPV systems with special focus on reliability, the different climatic
conditions and their impact on the system performance. The seasonal distribution of the direct normal irradiation at the
mentioned locations was found to be very different which enabled us to perform studies on the system performance
depending on irradiation and ambient temperature. The first generation modules which were installed in 2008 had an
average efficiency of 25%, resulting in a peak solar-to-grid system efficiency of 23% and an average AC system energy
efficiency of > 20%. The system peak efficiencies of the second and third module generations reach maximum values of
> 25% and average AC system efficiencies of > 22%. A detailed analysis of the reliability and the performance of the
different system generations is presented.
KEYWORDS: Fresnel lenses, Temperature metrology, Silicon, Computer simulations, Glasses, Solar concentrators, Solar cells, Finite element methods, Light sources, Ray tracing
Fresnel lenses are often used as primary optical components in concentrating photovoltaics (CPV). When applied in the
field, varying conditions during operation lead to variations in lens temperature which has a strong impact on the optical
efficiency of the lenses.
A setup for indoor characterization with the ability to heat lens plates allows for the assessment of the quality of Fresnel
lenses by means of their irradiance profiles in the focal plane. To analyze the measured temperature dependency we
simulate thermal deformations of the lens geometry with finite element method (FEM) tools and use the resulting lens
geometry as an input to ray tracing simulations.
A close match between computer simulations and measurements of the irradiance profile in the focal plane is achieved,
validating our simulation approach. This allows us to judge and optimize the temperature dependence of new lens
designs before building and testing prototypes. The simulation enables us to analyze and understand all superimposed
effects in detail. The developed tools in combination with detailed solar resource data and knowledge of the CPV system
will be the basis for future assessment of overall performance and further optimization of optics for CPV applications.
KEYWORDS: Solar concentrators, Photovoltaics, Solar cells, Concentrated solar cells, Solar energy, Energy efficiency, Brain-machine interfaces, Fresnel lenses, Glasses, Silicon
In this paper, a review of the recent progress in concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) is given. In the first part, an
introduction to CPV includes the concepts of solar concentration and the specific advantages of CPV. Then, the various
optical designs are presented and discussed. In the second part, the recent success in bringing this technology to market
ready products is described. Exemplarily, the FLATCON® CPV technology is described in detail and data of the field
performance are presented. The design of the FLATCON CPV module is based on Fresnel lenses and III-V multijunction
solar cells (MJC). With these modules Concentrix installed a demo tracker and two power plants in Spain in
2008. Field data of these systems with a maximum AC efficiency of 23% are presented and discussed in detail. In 2009,
the first systems were installed with the module CX-75 which is produced on the fully automated production line of
Concentrix in Freiburg. This module has a DC efficiency of 27% flashed. The field data which are presented demonstrate
an outstanding AC system efficiency of 25%.
The Yablonovitch limit for light trapping in solar cells with Lambertian surfaces can be increased using angle selective
absorbers thereby exploiting the limited incidence angle of solar radiation. We simulate the efficiency gain or loss caused
by an angular and energy selective filter on top of the absorber, compared to a Lambertian and a flat absorber.
Additionally, we introduce two possible implementations of such a filter, a Rugate stack and inverted opal layers.
Photonic structures can be used to eliminate the main loss mechanism in fluorescent concentrators. Simulation routines
have been established to investigate the optical characteristic of different photonic crystals. Especially two kinds of
structures with an appropriate characteristic have been examined closely. The first is the rugate filter, a one-dimensional
photonic structure. In the rugate filter the refractive index is varied sinusoidally over the thickness of the filter. The
second is the opal, a three-dimensional photonic crystals made of spheres that are arranged in a self organization process.
Filters from these structures have been designed and optimized for the application and fluorescent concentrators and
have been optimized. Additional aspects of the structures like angular effects have been examined.
In this paper we present detailed optical simulations of organic bulk-heterojunction solar cells built with inverted layer sequence as compared to the commonly used setup which is based on indium tin oxide (ITO) covered glass or plastic substrates and where the metal electrode is evaporated on top of the active absorber blend. The inverted setup may have production related advantages over the conventional setup, as the metal electrode is first evaporated onto the substrate and afterwards only wet chemical processes are needed. Additionally ITO can be replaced with a suited module concept. The effects of light trapping with an optical spacer, namely a transparent conductive layer between the absorber and the metallic electrode are investigated for the inverted setup. The results show that the insertion of an optical spacer does not increase the maximal obtainable short circuit current density and is only beneficial if a decrease of film thickness of the active absorber results in a higher internal quantum efficiency, open circuit voltage or fill factor. In the experimental section we show that the inversion of the layer sequence can be realised without any loss in device efficiency as compared to devices with the conventional layer sequence.
In solar control devices based on total internal reflection and microstructured surfaces, the Goos-Hänchen shift can lead
to a significant decrease in the geometrical optical solar shading effect. The knowledge of the maximal size of the Goos-Hänchen shift for a specific geometry is an important information to estimate its effect on the desired function of the
system. Quantitative measurements of the shift for optical wavelengths seems not feasible and analytical approaches are
not suited to identify the maximal shift. By using newly developed numerical techniques, namely the rigorous coupled
wave analysis (RCWA), the maximal Goos-Hänchen shift for given parameters can be determined.
KEYWORDS: Absorption, Solar cells, Near field optics, Electrodes, Organic photovoltaics, Metals, Modeling, Organic semiconductors, Near field, Aluminum
One key problem in optimizing organic solar cells is to maximize the absorption of incident light and to keep the charge carrier transport paths as short as possible in order to minimize transport losses. The large versatility of organic semiconductors and compositions requires specific optimization of each system. We investigate two model systems, the MDMO-PPV:PCBM blend and the P3HT:PCBM blend. Due to the small thickness of the functional layers in the order of several ten nanometers, coherent optics has to be considered and therefore interference effects play a dominant role. The influence of the thickness of the photoactive layer on the light absorption is investigated and compared with experimental data. The potential of an optical spacer which is introduced between the aluminium electrode and the photoactive layer to enhance the light harvesting is evaluated by optical modelling. Optical modelling becomes more complex for novel solar cell architectures based on nanostructured substrates. Exemplary optical simulations are presented for a nanoelectrode solar cell architecture.
KEYWORDS: Principal component analysis, Solar cells, Organic photovoltaics, Statistical analysis, Aluminum, Absorption, Statistical methods, Manufacturing, Polymers, Solar energy systems
The production process of organic solar cells (OSCs) is investigated and the effects of parameter variations
on experimental results are analysed with the Principal Component Analysis (PCA). This statistical method
is applied to an exemplar data set, in which the materials' concentration in the absorber solution and the
spincoating speed of the absorber solution were varied intentionally. In addition to the remaining production
parameters, the time intervals between the steps were included in the analysis. A large part of the variance
in the experimental results can be explained with the evaporation conditions, the spincoating speed and the
concentrations in the absorber solution. The PCA also confirms that the OSC is a complex and interdependent
system, where one has to analyse the influence of several parameters at the same time in order to understand
their effects on the OSC properties. The PCA results will be used to focus further experiments on the identified
key parameters.
We investigated organic bulk-heterojunction solar cells based on an absorber blend of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and [6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) by electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). A strong neck in the modulus plot of the EIS-spectra indicates that the absorber is divided into two regions of different conductivities. A similar behaviour was observed for pure P3HT-diodes. Hence, it can be concluded that the PCBM:P3HT absorber is pdoped by impurities of P3HT, so that a Schottky-like contact with aluminium is formed. It is known from literature, that annealing of PCBM:P3HT solar cells leads to drastic improvement of the photovoltaic performance. We compared the current-voltage characteristics and impedance spectra before and after consecutive annealing steps. After the annealing an expansion of the depletion region was observed, indicating that volatile dopants were evaporated out of the absorber. This contributes to an improved photovoltaic performance as the separation of the generated charges in the depletion region is more efficient than in the non-depleted region. Also an improved rectification behaviour might be caused by a lower doping level.
Along with efficiency and lifetime, costs are one of the most important aspects for the commercialization of organic solar cells. Thinking of large scale production of organic solar cells by an efficient reel-to-reel process, the materials are expected to determine the costs of the final product. Our approach is to develop functional substrates for organic solar cells which have the potential for cost effective production. The functionality is obtained by combining periodically microstructured substrates with lamellar electrode structures. Such structured substrates were fabricated by cost effective replication from masterstructures that were generated by large area interference lithography. Two cell architectures were investigated - holographic microprisms and interdigital buried nanoelectrodes. A structure period of 20 μm in combination with a 2 μm wide metal grid was chosen for the microprism cells based on the results of electrical calculations. Current-voltage curves with reasonable fill factors were measured for these devices. A significant light trapping effect was predicted from optical simulations. Interdigital buried nanoelectrodes are embedded in the photoactive layer of the solar cell. Separated interdigital metal electrodes with a sufficiently high parallel resistance were manufactured despite a small electrode distance below 400 nm. Experimental results on first photovoltaic devices will be presented. We observe an insufficient rectification of the photovoltaic device which we attribute to partial electron injection into the gold anode.
Interference lithography is a manufacturing technique which allows the origination of various types of microstructures on large areas. Micro-structured surfaces with optical functions are useful for radiation power management applications as well as light management applications in displays and in solar energy systems. This paper presents the interference lithography process, different types of possible structures, replication technologies, some applications and new approaches with high aspect ratio photoresists. Both conventional positive-tone diazonaphthoquinone (DNQ)-photoresists like AZ9260 and chemically amplified negative-tone photoresists like NANOTM SU-8 have been investigated.
For the structure origination a large scale interferometer setup with an argon ion laser is used. To this end the laser beam is divided into two beams in a first step. Then the two beams are directed by mirrors, expanded and finally superposed. The exposure intensity profile resulting of two superposed coherent light waves is sinusoidal. Therefore in general continuous microstructure profiles will result after development.
In this paper thick film photoresists and their usability for interference lithography are demonstrated. Therefore one-dimensional microstructures as well as prismatic microstructures for daylighting applications have been fabricated in AZ9260. Two-dimensional photoresist structures in NANOTM SU-8 for display applications are also introduced. With these new approaches, microstructures with high aspect ratios and structure depths up to 100μm and more have been realised due to the low UV-absorptance of such photoresists. Additional replication processes such as electroforming and soft-embossing as well as replicas in polymers are presented. Thus a complete process chain for a cost-effective fabrication of micro-structured optical components is given.
With surface-relief structures, optical functions that are required for radiation power management such as antireflection, light trapping, or light distribution and redirection can be obtained for new applications in solar energy systems and in displays. There, structures with submicrometer features must be distributed over large areas homogeneously. We address the design and the whole experimental process chain from the microstructure origination on large areas to the replication and the system integration in the specific application. Topics are antireflective surfaces for solar systems and displays, light trapping in polymer solar cells, sun protection systems for facades, and diffusers for projection displays and in glazing. For the microstructure origination we investigate the suitability of holographic recording in photoresist using a large-scale interferometer. We use an argon ion laser as a coherent light source at a wavelength of 364 nm. Periodic and stochastic interference patterns are recorded in positive photoresist with the interferometer setup. In the case of periodic structures, grating periods between 200 nm and 20 µm are realized. By carefully modeling the resulting resist profiles it is possible to originate even prismatic surface-relief profiles. Structures with good homogeneity are originated on areas of up to 4800 cm2 by optimizing the interferometer setup and the photoresist processing.
Structuring surfaces on a microscopic scale allows to modify their optical properties. The exact tailoring of these properties requires very precise manufacturing techniques. On large areas, mainly replication techniques allow competitive production cost. This paper addresses the challenge of originating and replicating microstructures with optical functions with dimensions between 200nm and 50μm on areas of up to half a square meter. The whole experimental process chain is described and discussed. For the microstructure origination, interference lithography was used. An argon ion laser was chosen as a coherent light source at a wavelength of 364nm. Periodic and stochastic interference patterns were recorded in positive photoresist by using large interferometer set-ups. Structures with good homogeneity were originated on areas of up to 4800 cm2 by optimizing the set-up and the photoresist processing. By carefully modeling resulting resist profiles it was possible to originate a wide variety of surface-relief profiles including prismatic ones. Different replication techniques like hot compression molding and UV casting are discussed. Some applications of large-area micro-structured films and sheets are presented.
By surface-relief structures optical functions like anti-reflection, light trapping or light distribution and re-direction can be realized. New applications in solar energy systems and in displays require structures with sub-micron features which are homogeneously distributed over large areas. This paper addresses the design and the whole experimental process chain from the micro structure origination on large areas to the replication and the system integration in the specific application. Topics are antireflective surfaces for solar systems and displays, light trapping in polymer solar cells, sun protection systems for facades and diffusers for projection displays and in glazing. For the micro structure origination we investigated the suitability of holographic recording in photoresist by using a large scale interferometer. An argon ion laser was used as a coherent light source at a wavelength of 364nm. With the interferometer set-up periodic and stochastic interference patterns were recorded in positive photoresist. In the case of periodic structures, grating periods between 200nm and 20µm have been realized. By carefully modeling resulting resist profiles it was possible to originate even prismatic surface-relief profiles. Structures with good homogeneity were originated on areas of up to 4800 cm2 by optimizing the interferometer set-up and the photoresist processing.
The availability of periodic surface-relief structures with grating constants from 200 nm to 100 microns on large areas leads to a wide field of applications. Effects of interest are the antireflection properties of high aspect ratio subwavelength gratings and the light management by structures in the micrometer scale. The size of the homogeneously structured area and the ease of producability is decisive for the commercialization of such functional surfaces. Microstructures like these can be produced on large areas by holographic exposure processes. Subsequent holographic exposures with differing parameters lead to combined structures with distinct properties. Master structures in photoresist can be used to fabricate nickel stampers. Techniques like UV roller casting and hot embossing can be employed to replicate such microstructures on large areas with high precision. With such replication processes a very cost effective mass production is possible. With our holographic set-up periodic surface relief structures with various grating types and profile shapes can be realized with a good homogeneity on an area with dimensions up to 600 x 800 mm2. The combination of stochastic and periodic structures offers the chance to obtain a multifunctional surface with antiglare and broadband antireflection properties. The possible applications are solar energy systems, lighting or displays.
Fresnel lenses for projection optics require a reduction of reflection losses in a wide wavelength and angular range. Their surface relief consisting of inclined microstructures with increasing inclination angle causes a reduction in AR- coating thickness form center to the edges and hence a spectral shift.
Standard approaches of lithographic process simulation have been applied to the simulation of holographically exposed photoresist gratings. Fine tuning of the photoresist development parameters results in a good agreement of simulated and experimentally obtained photoresist profiles. Several conclusions with respect to the optimization of process and photoresist parameters for the fabrication of user defined photoresist profiles are drawn.
Ellipsometry is a powerful technique for the determination of complex refractive indices ^n equals n plus ik of thin absorbing films deposited on a substrate. If the films are deposited onto an opaque substrate, the calculation methods are well-known. However, sometimes it is advantageous for some other reason to deposit the films onto a transparent substrate. In this case the light reflected from the back surface of the substrate must also be taken into account. If the thickness of the substrate is much larger than the coherence length of the light, there is no correlation between the phases of the light beams reflected from the boundaries of the thin film and the beam reflected from the back surface of the substrate. Therefore, it is not possible to calculate the absolute phase of the total reflectance of the system, i.e. the film plus substrate. However, for the determination of the ellipsometric coefficients the relative phase must be known. In this publication a method of calculating the ellipsometric coefficients of such a system is presented. Instead of calculating the absolute phase, this method is based on the calculation of reflected intensities for arbitrary angles of polarization taking into account the relative phase shift at each boundary. Comparisons between measurements of ellipsometric coefficients of well-known materials and the calculations based on this method show excellent agreement.
An apparatus was built to measure the spectral hemispherical reflectance and transmittance at variable angles of incidence. The apparatus consists of a Fourier-transform spectrometer, polarizers, and two integrating spheres. With one of the spheres, transmittance measurements can be performed, with the other, reflectance or absorptance measurements depending on the transmittance of the samples. The measurement range for transmittance measurements is from 400 nm to 2500 nm and for reflectance or absorptance measurements from 400 nm to 1900 nm. The design of the spheres and the optical set-up is described. The measurement accuracy was determined by measuring well-defined samples. Examples of measurements of different solar selective absorber coatings and anti-reflection layers are shown.
Improved and intelligent windows are an important component to minimize the energy consumption of houses. On the one hand highly insulating windows with low U-values (high R-value) are necessary to reduce the heat transmission losses during the cold season, but on the other hand, components with high solar transmittance are desirable to get solar gains in the same period of the year. In addition, overheating problems might occur during summer, so smart windows with variable characteristics might be useful. These demands are just conflicting. Recent developments to overcome this problem are summarized. The combination of new technologies like antireflection layers, low emission coatings and switchable films may give a chance to produce smart windows with a wide dynamic range in solar transmittance.
R. Gampp, P. Gantenbein, Y. Kuster, Paul Reimann, R. Steiner, P. Oelhafen, Stefan Brunold, Ulrich Frei, Andreas Gombert, Ralph Joerger, Wolfgang Graf, Michael Koehl
Tungsten and chromium containing hydrogenated amorphous carbon films were deposited in a process which combines plasma activated chemical vapor deposition of methane and r.f.- sputtering of a metallic target. The metal content of the deposits can be adjusted by the ratio of gas flow between argon and methane and was determined by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS). For the a-C:H/W composites the XPS data are presented in detail and supply information about the chemical state of carbon and tungsten. The presence of W in carbidic state could be proven. Furthermore the optical constants n and k of a-C:H/W were obtained in the wavelength range between 0.4 and 2.6micrometers and for W concentrations of up to 33 at.%. The morphology of the deposits, determined by atomic force microscopy, ranges from very porous to compact and can be controlled by the substrate bias voltage. Accelerated ageing investigations were performed in air in order to characterize the deterioration mechanisms of a-C:H/W and a-C:H/Cr films deposited on different substrate materials. The significance of the morphology of the coating and the roughness of the substrate for the ageing mechanisms could be shown. Very promising results concerning the film stability were obtained for a-C:H/Cr.
Thin silver layers are frequently used as the infrared reflecting component of low-e coatings. The optimum thickness of the layer must be found by maximizing the IR-reflectance and the visible transmittance. Since the optimum demands a very thin silver layer, the condensation and nucleation of the silver on the respective substrate or interface is very important. The subject of this study was the sputter deposition of silver on different substrate materials: float glass, tin oxide and bismuth oxide. The optical properties of the layers were measured spectroscopically from UV to IR. The topography of the layers was investigated by scanning force microscopy. The measurements exhibit significant differences depending on the substrate material.
The unique property of silica aerogel, to be transparent with a low thermal conductivity and the safety of the CO2 producing mode, provides the motivation for European Laboratories to work together in the field of transparent insulation materials under the framework of European projects (Joule II, Human Capital and Mobility). A couple of problems have to be solved to achieve the goal of manufacturing a double glazing filled with monolithic carbogel. To improve the mechanical and optical properties of carbogel for its application in double glazing, one has to know the relationship between the structure and the physical properties of the carbogel. Therefore, one has to analyze the structure of carbogel in a detailed manner. This paper discusses the change in particle size as a function of the polyethoxydisoloxane precursor to water ration. We present Tapping Mode and Contact Mode atomic Force Microscope Images of carbogel which supply 3D information about the carbogel surface. The measured images provide information about the particle's size in three dimensions in nanometer scale range.
The optical constants of thin sputtered molybdenum layers, embedded in a ceramic-metal composite, which was produced by a batch sputtering deposition system, were analyzed. This was done by assuming a multilayer system for a tin oxide-molybdenum cermet and calculating the optical constants from angular and polarization dependent reflection and transmission spectra. These optical constants were found to differ strongly from those for sputtered bulk material obtained ellipsometrically. Good agreement between measured effective refractive indices for cermets and effective medium calculation was found, if these optical constants for molybdenum were used in the effective medium calculations. Differences to the optical constants of the cermet determined ellipsometrically were explained by the birefringence of the cermet. The size and the shape of the embedded particles were investigated with an atomic force microscope.
Broadband antireflection coatings can be made from multi-layer stacks or by microstructuring the surface. One approach for microstructuring is to prepare random rough surfaces by sputtering or evaporation technology. A second is the production of periodic holographic double gratings, so-called `moth eyes' with spatial periods of less than 1 micrometers . The effect of these two possibilities on the solar absorptance is demonstrated by the example of cermet solar absorber coatings.
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