Multispectral photoacoustic tomography (PAT) offers high-resolution images of deep tissue oxygen saturation (sO2), but the complexity of photon absorption and scattering affects sO2 accuracy. This study applied a rigorous light transport model, revealing that PA spectra within biological tissue can be represented as convex cones (CCs) in a high-dimensional space. Using the CC model, sO2 can be estimated by finding the nearest CC to measured data, even in noisy conditions. This method combines a physical model with machine learning, demonstrating practicality and robustness in numerical, phantom, and in vivo imaging experiments, with an average sO2 estimation error of just 3% in human trials. Additionally, it outperforms clinical practices like linear spectral unmixing, suggesting broader applications in PA molecular imaging and diffuse optical imaging.
SignificanceTo ensure precise tumor localization and subsequent pathological examination, a metal marker clip (MC) is placed within the tumor or lymph node prior to neoadjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer. However, as tumors decrease in size following treatment, detecting the MC using ultrasound imaging becomes challenging in some patients. Consequently, a mammogram is often required to pinpoint the MC, resulting in additional radiation exposure, time expenditure, and increased costs. Dual-modality imaging, combining photoacoustic (PA) and ultrasound (US), offers a promising solution to this issue.AimOur objective is to localize the MC without radiation exposure using PA/US dual-modality imaging.ApproachA PA/US dual-modality imaging system was developed. Utilizing this system, both phantom and clinical experiments were conducted to demonstrate that PA/US dual-modality imaging can effectively localize the MC.ResultsThe PA/US dual-modality imaging can identify and localize the MC. In clinical trials encompassing four patients and five MCs, the recognition rate was ∼80%. Three experiments to verify the accuracy of marker position recognition were successful.ConclusionsWe effectively localized the MC in real time using PA/US dual-modality imaging. Unlike other techniques, the new method enables surgeons to pinpoint nodules both preoperatively and intraoperatively. In addition, it boasts non-radioactivity and is comparatively cost-effective.
Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is an emerging modality that has generated increasing interest for its uses in clinical research and translation. To fully exploit its potential for various preclinical and clinical applications, it is necessary to develop systems that offer high imaging speed, reasonable cost, and manageable data flow. Currently, a significant challenge lies in the fabrication of ultrasound arrays, as many of them are not densely populated enough to fully sample the signals. Ideally, the pitch of the arrays should be half of the center ultrasonic wavelength to prevent spatial undersampling and the subsequent reconstruction artifacts, such as aliasing artifacts and structural deformation. Here, a novel photoacoustic sparse sampling Transformer-CNN coupling network (passFormer) is proposed to decouple target details and spatial under-sampling artifacts from high-frequency image information in a heterogeneous feature-aware manner. To be specific, we first decompose the sparse sampling (SS) photoacoustic (PA) images into 2 parts: high-frequency (HF) and low-frequency (LF) compositions. Our methodology incorporates two bridging modules, the LF modules and the HF modules. The LF coupling module extracts content features (Xc) and latent texture feature (Xtex), and the HF coupling module extracts high-frequency embedding (Xemb) containing the target details features (Xdetail) and under-sampling artifacts (Xart). We feed Xt and Xemb into a modified transformer with three encoders and decoders to obtain well-refined HF texture features. At last, we combine the refined HF texture features with pre-extracted Xc by pixel-wise summation reconstruction. Experimental results on publicly available full and sparse reconstruction datasets of mouse and phantom PA images highlight the superior performance of our method, particularly in live mouse imaging. This new approach enables accelerated data acquisition and image reconstruction, facilitating the development of practical and cost-effective imaging systems.
Photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT), also known as optoacoustic or thermoacoustic tomography, is a rapidly emerging hybrid imaging modality that combines optical image contrast with ultrasound detection. Most currently available PACT image reconstruction algorithms are based on idealized imaging models that assume a lossless and acoustically homogeneous medium. However, in many applications of PACT, if the non-uniform acoustic properties of objects are not considered in the reconstruction algorithm, the reconstructed images may contain significant distortions and artifacts. This paper proposes a fully automatic double-SoS (Speed-of-sound) reconstruction algorithm which runs at 10Hzfortwo-dimensional images of (512)(512) pixels. The algorithm uses a deep learning model to segment the animal’s outer profile from the water background. We adaptively calculate the most appropriate sound speed and assign different sound speeds to the two regions for PA image reconstruction. The reconstructed images were compared to those reconstructed using a uniform SoS quantitatively.
Significance: Photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT) is a fast-growing imaging modality. In PACT, the image quality is degraded due to the unknown distribution of the speed of sound (SoS). Emerging initial pressure (IP) and SoS joint-reconstruction methods promise reduced artifacts in PACT. However, previous joint-reconstruction methods have some deficiencies. A more effective method has promising prospects in preclinical applications.Aim: We propose a multi-segmented feature coupling (MSFC) method for SoS-IP joint reconstruction in PACT.Approach: In the proposed method, the ultrasound detectors were divided into multiple sub-arrays with each sub-array and its opposite counterpart considered to be a pair. The delay and sum algorithm was then used to reconstruct two images based on a subarray pair and estimated a direction-specific SoS, based on image correlation and the orientation of the subarrays. Once the data generated by all pairs of subarrays were processed, an image that was optimized in terms of minimal feature splitting in all directions was generated. Further, based on the direction-specific SoS, a model-based method was used to directly reconstruct the SoS distribution.Results: Both phantom and animal experiments demonstrated feasibility and showed promising results compared with conventional methods, with less splitting and blurring and fewer distortions.Conclusions: The developed MSFC method shows promising results for both IP and SoS reconstruction. The MSFC method will help to optimize the image quality of PACT in clinical applications.
Photoacoustic imaging (PAI, also called optoacoustic imaging) combines light excitation and ultrasound detection for deep-tissue imaging with light absorption contrast. PAI can map the distribution of endogenous chromophores such as oxy-hemoglobin, deoxy-hemoglobin, lipids, water, and melanin. PAI performs especially well for structural and functional imaging of blood vessels. Its centimeter-deep imaging depth and ultrasound-defined resolution make it well suited for clinical application, where systems employing a linear array ultrasound probe are most commonly used due to simplicity, flexibility, and easy integration with standard ultrasonic imaging. The existing linear array based imaging systems typically employ optical fiber bundles for light delivery, such a scheme enjoys mechanical flexibility, optical stability, and simple light coupling. However, major drawbacks associated with fiber illumination include suboptimal transmission efficiency and a lack of control of the illumination pattern. Articulated arms provide an alternative light delivery option which potentially offer high transmission efficiency, stable and flexible operation, and low cost. Despite its wide applications in cosmetology, articulated arms for light delivery were understudied in the PAI community. In this paper, we reported the fabrication and experimental evaluation of an articulated arm specifically designed for linear-array-based PAI. Without losing the flexibility provided by the linear probe. Moreover, the articulated arm can be equipped with spatial positioning devices to perform three-dimensional reconstructions.
Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is a biomedical imaging modality that can provide structural, functional, and molecular information. In PAI, laser pulses illuminate the tissue, and transient light absorption leads to instant thermal expansion and succeeding ultrasound emission. Since oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin are the major light-absorbing chromophores in biological tissue, PAI has very high contrast and is intrinsically suitable for the imaging of blood vessels. Meanwhile, superb microvascular imaging (SMI) is an emerging ultrasound imaging technique for angiography. In comparison to traditional color Doppler and power Doppler techniques which rely on the suppression of low-velocity components, SMI works by an intelligent algorithm that renders small vessels with low flow velocity visible. To date, there is no work to compare PAI and SMI in terms of vascular imaging capabilities. In this paper, we provide our recent evaluation results in imaging depths, speeds, sensitivities, and resolutions of these two modalities through phantom experiments and in-vivo studies. We used PAI and SMI to image the human forearm, and our preliminary data show that PAI is superior in imaging speeds, and sensitivities for superficial blood vessels. We acknowledge that more work needs to be done to compare the two techniques in diverse clinical applications more quantitatively, and we hope our work can pave the way for such systematic studies..
Unmixing multispectral photoacoustic (PA) images is difficult because the excitation spectra in deep tissue are contaminated by absorption and scattering of the surrounding tissue in a highly unpredictable manner. In this work, we found a close relationship between the covariance matrix of a multispectral photoacoustic image and its average tissue oxygenation level. Based on the photon diffusion process, a spectral-domain model of multispectral photoacoustic imaging is established. Combined with the above two findings, accurate estimation of blood oxygen saturation (median error 2.7%) and accurate probe identification (detection rate 86%, false alarm rate 0.035%) were realized in realistic simulation test.
KEYWORDS: Data modeling, Image quality, Image segmentation, Image processing, Signal detection, Photoacoustic imaging, Image restoration, Model-based design, In vivo imaging, 3D modeling
Significance: Photoacoustic (PA) imaging can provide structural, functional, and molecular information for preclinical and clinical studies. For PA imaging (PAI), non-ideal signal detection deteriorates image quality, and quantitative PAI (QPAI) remains challenging due to the unknown light fluence spectra in deep tissue. In recent years, deep learning (DL) has shown outstanding performance when implemented in PAI, with applications in image reconstruction, quantification, and understanding.
Aim: We provide (i) a comprehensive overview of the DL techniques that have been applied in PAI, (ii) references for designing DL models for various PAI tasks, and (iii) a summary of the future challenges and opportunities.
Approach: Papers published before November 2020 in the area of applying DL in PAI were reviewed. We categorized them into three types: image understanding, reconstruction of the initial pressure distribution, and QPAI.
Results: When applied in PAI, DL can effectively process images, improve reconstruction quality, fuse information, and assist quantitative analysis.
Conclusion: DL has become a powerful tool in PAI. With the development of DL theory and technology, it will continue to boost the performance and facilitate the clinical translation of PAI.
Tumor photothermal therapy technology has received a lot of attention in recent years due to its non-invasive and targeted properties. However, how to ensure the safety and effectiveness of the photothermal treatment process poses new challenges to researchers. The field of photothermal therapy urgently needs a non-contact and accurate temperature detection method. In this paper, we have proposed a precise temperature detection technology based on photoacoustic and ultrasonic dual mode which can provide accurate and non-contact temperature measurement, and the temperature information of the light-induced ultrasound signals was fused and applied to temperature detection. To validate our method, temperatures of phantom was measured within the temperature range that simulates the heating process of photothermal therapy, and the calculated temperature measurement error was finally within 1 °C. In particular, it was also verified that the measurement accuracy of this method is 30% higher than that of single photoacoustic temperature detection. The results suggested that our method can be potentially used for temperature monitoring during photothermal therapy.
KEYWORDS: Photoacoustic imaging, Blood, Tissue optics, Blood oxygen saturation, In vivo imaging, Data modeling, Multispectral imaging, Diffusion, Biological research, Monte Carlo methods
In multispectral photoacoustic imaging (PAI), the illumination spectrum inside biological tissue varies spatially, leading to poor quantification accuracy of blood oxygen saturation (SO2). The key to solving this problem is to invert light diffusion, which is extremely complicated and inaccurate due to the limited information available in PAI. Despite the great effort devoted, to date, the few available methods are all limited in terms of in vivo performance and physical insights. Here, we introduce an analytical Monte Carlo method, with which we prove that the light spectrum in biological tissue mathematically lies in a high dimensional convex cone set. The model offers new insights into the origin of the spectral deterioration, and we find it possible to calculate blood oxygen saturation (SO2) accurately by using only the photoacoustic data at a single spatial location when signal to noise ratio is sufficient. The method was demonstrated numerically, and our preliminary phantom experiment results also confirmed its effectiveness.
Photoacoustic mesoscopy is an emerging noninvasive imaging modality, which offers high resolution 3D images with optical absorption contrast at depths beyond the light diffusion limit. Ultrasound sensor based on a Fabry-Perot (FP) polymer cavity has the following advantages: broadband frequency response, wide angular coverage and small footprint. We present a photoacoustic mesoscope based on a tunable Fabry-Perot interferometer, which offers the potential for reducing system cost and making array of such sensor. A cw diode laser working at 650nm was used to heat the sensor, offering an active tune range of 5nm by elongating the cavity. Ex-vivo and in-vivo imaging experiments demonstrated the imaging capability of this PA mesoscope, showing great potential in biological and medical applications.
Photoacoustic (PA) tomography (PACT) ’s capability is evidently influenced by the availability of imaging probes such as the genetically encoded proteins with near-infrared optical absorption (NIR-GEP). We present a new PACT screening platform specially designed for high throughput imaging and quantification of PA signal strengths from randomly mutated NIR-GEP candidates expressed in Escherichia coli colonies.The new platform holds promise to facilitate research on the next generation NIR PA imaging probes.
Fiber optic Fabry-Perot interferometer is inherently suitable as the ultrasonic transducer for photoacoustic tomography due to its high sensitivity, broad bandwidth and small footprint. Interrogated by a narrow linewidth continuous wave laser, the sensor’s output power is modulated by the incident ultrasound. During the imaging process, the sensor’s sensitivity is maximized by locking the laser to a spectral point where the sensor’s reflectivity changes most rapidly with wavelength. Traditionally, one needs a fast tunable laser to scan the reflection spectrum of the sensor and subsequently lock the laser frequency to the proper spectral point using a feedback loop. The requirement of a wavelength-tunable, low-noise interrogation laser significantly raises system cost and inhibits parallel detection. In this paper, we present a fiber optic Fabry-Perot acoustic sensor whose reflection spectrum can be swiftly and robustly tuned using an economical visible diode laser. By controlling the power of the illumination laser, the temperature of the sensor cavity can be finely adjusted which leads to altered cavity length and shifted spectrum. With this technique, we are able to tune the spectrum by more than 10 nm with a precision less than 0.1 nm. The sensor was characterized to exhibit a flat frequency response up to 20 MHz and a noise-equivalent pressure below 200 Pa. This sensor can be batch-fabricated and its low cost and easy implementation make parallel detection feasible and affordable, potentially benefiting fast image acquisition. The performance of the sensor was demonstrated in multiple phantom and in vivo imaging experiments.
As an emerging optical imaging modality, photoacoustic imaging provides optical absorption contrasts and ultrasonic high resolution. Artifacts appearing in photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT) always deteriorate image quality and resolution, and result in confusion of biological information. On the basis of different causing reasons, they are roughly classified as split artifacts and streak artifacts. Here we present an innovative Feature-Coupling (FC) method to weaken split artifacts with joint reconstruction of speed of sound and a new reconstruction algorithm, termed Contamination-Tracing Back-Projection (CTBP), is proposed for the mitigation of streak artifacts. The utility, effectiveness and robustness of our methods were demonstrated using numerical, phantom, and in vivo experiments.
Photoacoustic imaging is an emerging optical imaging modality which provides optical absorption contrasts and high resolution in the optical diffusive regime. In photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT), often times the detection of the photoacoustic signal only covers a partial solid angle less than 4π, due to experimental or economic constraints. Incomplete spatial coverage always jeopardizes image quality and resolution, and results in significant artifacts and missing of image features. This problem is referred to as “limited view” and has remained unsolved for decades. In this work, we present a new machine-learning-based method that is specifically designed to compensate for the missing information due to limited view. The robustness and effectiveness of our method were demonstrated using numerical, phantom, and in vivo experiments.
Photoacoustic imaging relies on diffused photons for optical contrast, and diffracted ultrasound for high resolution. As a tomographic imaging modality, often times an inverse problem of acoustic diffraction needs to be solved to reconstruct a photoacoustic image. The inverse problem is complicated by the fact that the acoustic properties, including the speed of sound distribution, in the image field of view are unknown. During reconstruction, subtle changes of the speed of sound in the acoustic ray path may accumulate and give rise to noticeable blurring in the image. Thus, in addition to the ultrasound detection bandwidth, inaccurate acoustic modeling, especially the unawareness of the speed of sound, defines the image resolution and influences image quantification. Here, we proposed a method termed feature coupling to jointly reconstruct the speed of sound distribution and a photoacoustic image with improved sharpness, at no additional hardware cost. In vivo experiments demonstrated the effectiveness and reliability of our method.
Wavefront shaping techniques are being actively developed to achieve optical focusing through and inside opaque scattering media. These techniques promise to revolutionize biophotonics by enabling deep-tissue non-invasive optical imaging, optogenetics, optical tweezing, and light-based therapy. Among the existing wavefront shaping techniques, optical time-reversal-based techniques determine the optimum wavefront globally based on the principle of time reversal, without the need to perform time-consuming iterations to optimize each mode in sequence. In all previous optical time-reversal-based wavefront shaping experiments, Nyquist sampling criterion was followed so that the scattered light field was well-sampled during wavefront measurement and wavefront reconstruction. In this work, we overturn this conventional practice by demonstrating that a high-quality optical focus can still be achieved even when the scattered light field is under-sampled. Even more strikingly, we show both theoretically and experimentally that the focus achieved by the under-sampling scheme can be one order of magnitude brighter than that achieved by the well-sampling schemes used in previous works, where 3×3 to 5×5 pixels sampled one speckle grain on average. Moreover, since neighboring pixels were uncorrelated in feedback-based wavefront shaping, introducing the concept of sub-Nyquist sampling in time-reversal-based wavefront shaping makes the optimal phase maps obtained using these two different methods consistent. We anticipate that this newly explored under-sampling scheme will transform the understanding of optical time reversal and boost the performance of optical imaging, manipulation, and communication through opaque scattering media.
Optical phase conjugation based wavefront shaping techniques are being actively developed to focus light through or inside scattering media such as biological tissue, and they promise to revolutionize optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy. The speed of digital optical phase conjugation (DOPC) has been limited by the low speeds of cameras and spatial light modulators (SLMs), preventing DOPC from being applied to thick living tissue. Recently, a fast DOPC system was developed based on a single-shot wavefront measurement method, a field programmable gate array (FPGA) for data processing, and a digital micromirror device (DMD) for fast modulation. However, this system has the following limitations. First, the reported single-shot wavefront measurement method does not work when our goal is to focus light inside, instead of through, scattering media. Second, the DMD performed binary amplitude modulation, which resulted in a lower focusing contrast compared with that of phase modulations. Third, the optical fluence threshold causing DMDs to malfunction under pulsed laser illumination is lower than that of liquid crystal based SLMs, and the system alignment is significantly complicated by the oblique reflection angle of the DMD. Here, we developed a simple but high-speed DOPC system using a ferroelectric liquid crystal based SLM (512 × 512 pixels), and focused light through three diffusers within 4.7 ms. Using focused-ultrasound-guided DOPC along with a double exposure scheme, we focused light inside a scattering medium containing two diffusers within 7.7 ms, thus achieving the fastest digital time-reversed ultrasonically encoded (TRUE) optical focusing to date.
Imaging of small animals, especially rodents provides physiological, pathological, and phenotypical insights into the most relevant milieu—an intact, living system. Currently, non-optical small-animal wholebody imaging approaches lack either spatiotemporal resolution or functional contrasts, whereas pure optical imaging suffers from either shallow penetration (up to ~1 mm) or a poor resolution-to-depth ratio (~1/3). Here, we present a standalone system that breaks all the above limitations. Our system features high spatiotemporal resolution and deep penetration, and can capture anatomical and functional contrasts. We imaged mouse wholebody dynamics in real time with clear sub-organ anatomical and functional details.
We present single-shot real-time video recording of light scattering dynamics by second-generation compressed ultrafast photography (G2-CUP). Using G2-CUP at 100 billion frames per second, in a single camera exposure, we experimentally captured the evolution of the light intensity distribution in an engineered thin scattering plate assembly. G2-CUP, which implements a new reconstruction paradigm and a more efficient hardware design than its predecessors, markedly improves the reconstructed image quality. The ultrafast imaging reveals the instantaneous light scattering pattern as a photonic Mach cone. We envision that our technology will find a diverse range of applications in biomedical imaging, materials science, and physics.
Optical phase conjugation (OPC) based wavefront shaping techniques focus light through or within scattering media, which is critically important for deep-tissue optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy. However, to date, the sample thicknesses used in wavefront shaping experiments have been limited to only a few millimeters or several transport mean free paths. Here, by using a long-coherence-length laser and an optimized digital OPC system that efficiently delivers light power, we focused 532 nm light through tissue-mimicking phantoms up to 9.6 cm thick, as well as through ex vivo chicken breast tissue up to 2.5 cm thick.
Optical phase conjugation (OPC)-based wavefront shaping techniques focus light through or within scattering media, which is critically important for deep-tissue optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy. However, to date, the sample thickness in OPC experiments has been limited to only a few millimeters. Here, by using a laser with a long coherence length and an optimized digital OPC system that can safely deliver more light power, we focused 532-nm light through tissue-mimicking phantoms up to 9.6 cm thick, as well as through ex vivo chicken breast tissue up to 2.5 cm thick. Our results demonstrate that OPC can be achieved even when photons have experienced on average 1000 scattering events. The demonstrated penetration of nearly 10 cm (∼100 transport mean free paths) has never been achieved before by any optical focusing technique, and it shows the promise of OPC for deep-tissue noninvasive optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy.
Optical focusing plays a central role in biomedical optical imaging, manipulation, and therapy. However, in scattering media, direct optical focusing becomes infeasible beyond ~10 mean free paths. To break this limit, time-reversed ultrasonically encoded (TRUE) optical focusing phase-conjugates ultrasonically tagged diffuse light back to the ultrasonic focus, thus forming a focus deep inside scattering media. In previous works, the speed of wavefront measurement was limited by the low frame rate of the camera used to record the four images required for phase-shifting holography. Moreover, most of the bits of a pixel value were used to represent an informationless background caused by the large amount of untagged light, increasing the amount of data to transfer and necessitating the use of costly high-resolution analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). Here, we developed a digital TRUE focusing system based on a lock-in camera (300×300 pixels), in which each pixel performs analog lock-in detection on chip. Since only the information of the signal, not that of the background, is digitized, the lock-in camera reduces the amount of data to transfer, and enables the use of cheap low-resolution ADCs. Using this lock-in camera, we were able to measure the wavefront of ultrasonically tagged light in less than 0.3 ms, and to achieve TRUE focusing in between two ground glass diffusers. Even when the signal-to-background ratio dropped to 6.32×10^-4, a phase sensitivity as low as 0.51 rad could still be realized, which is more than enough for digital optical phase conjugation.
Focusing light deep inside scattering media plays a key role in such biomedical applications as high resolution optical imaging, control, and therapy. In recent years, wavefront shaping technologies have come a long way in controlling light propagation in complex media. A prominent example is time-reversed ultrasonically encoded (TRUE) focusing, which allows noninvasive introduction of “guide stars” inside biological tissue to guide light focusing. By measuring the optical wavefront emanating from an ultrasound focus created at the target location, TRUE determines the desired wavefront non-iteratively, and achieves focusing at the target position via a subsequent optical time reversal. Compared to digital counterparts that employ slow electronic spatial light modulators and cameras, analog TRUE focusing relies on nonlinear photorefractive crystals that inherently accommodate more spatial modes and eliminate the troublesome alignment and data transfer required by digital approaches. However, analog TRUE focusing suffers from its small gain, defined as the energy or power ratio between the focusing and probing beams in the focal volume. Here, by implementing a modified analog TRUE focusing scheme that squeezes the duration of the time-reversed photon packet below the carrier-recombination-limited hologram decay time of the crystal, we demonstrated a photon flux amplification much greater than unity at a preset focal voxel in between two scattering layers. Although the energy gain was still below unity, the unprecedented power gain will nevertheless benefit new biomedical applications.
The single-shot compressed ultrafast photography (CUP) camera is the fastest receive-only camera in the world. In this work, we introduce an external CCD camera and a space- and intensity-constrained (SIC) reconstruction algorithm to improve the image quality of CUP. The CCD camera takes a time-unsheared image of the dynamic scene. Unlike the previously used unconstrained algorithm, the proposed algorithm incorporates both spatial and intensity constraints, based on the additional prior information provided by the external CCD camera. First, a spatial mask is extracted from the time-unsheared image to define the zone of action. Second, an intensity threshold constraint is determined based on the similarity between the temporally projected image of the reconstructed datacube and the time-unsheared image taken by the external CCD. Both simulation and experimental studies showed that the SIC reconstruction improves the spatial resolution, contrast, and general quality of the reconstructed image.
Time-reversed ultrasonically encoded (TRUE) optical focusing is an emerging technique that focuses light deep into scattering media by phase-conjugating ultrasonically encoded diffuse light. In previous work, the speed of TRUE focusing was limited to no faster than 1 Hz by the response time of the photorefractive phase conjugate mirror, or the data acquisition and streaming speed of the digital camera; photorefractive-crystal-based TRUE focusing was also limited to the visible spectral range. These time-consuming schemes prevent this technique from being applied in vivo, since living biological tissue has a speckle decorrelation time on the order of a millisecond. In this work, using a Tedoped Sn2P2S6 photorefractive crystal at a near-infrared wavelength of 793 nm, we achieved TRUE focusing inside dynamic scattering media having a speckle decorrelation time as short as 7.7 ms. As the achieved speed approaches the tissue decorrelation rate, this work is an important step forward toward in vivo applications of TRUE focusing in deep tissue imaging, photodynamic therapy, and optical manipulation.
The spectrum shift of FBG to ultrasonic wave is caused by the refractive index profile changing along the FBG, which
can be attributed to nonuniform perturbation caused by strain-optic and geometric effects of ultrasonic wave. Response
of FBG to the above two effects was analyzed by V-I transmission matrix model, showing high computing efficiency.
Spectra response of FBG under changing ultrasonic frequencies was simulated and discussed. In experiment, the system
was sensitive enough to detect ultrasonic wave from 15 kHz to 1380 kHz. These results would provide a guideline for
FBG-based acoustic detection system design in a specific ultrasonic frequency.
It is well known that using a single-mode lead-in fiber, a multi-mode fiber section as a Fabry-Perot cavity, and an
additional single-mode fiber as the tail results in a structure that generates strong interference fringes while remaining
robust. Due to their compact size, sensitivity, and ability to be multiplexed, intrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometers (IFPIs)
are excellent candidates for almost any multi-point temperature or strain application. Four of these sensors were to be
installed on a 2"x2" coupon for installation in a simulated gas turbine environment. Though the basic principles behind
these sensors are well known, serious issues associated with geometric constraints resulting from the size of the test
coupon, sensor placement, and mechanical reinforcement of the fiber arose; fabricating a sensor chain with appropriate
sensor spacing and excellent temperature response characteristics proved a significant challenge. Issues addressed
include inter-sensor interference, high-temperature mechanical reinforcement for bare fiber sections, and high bending
losses. After overcoming these problems, a final sensor chain was fabricated and characterized. This chain was then
subjected to a battery of tests at the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL). Final results are presented and
analyzed.
This article introduces an approach for modeling the fiber optic low-finesse extrinsic Fabry-Pérot Interferometers
(EFPI), aiming to address signal processing problems in EFPI demodulation algorithms based on white light
interferometry. The main goal is to seek physical interpretations to correlate the sensor spectrum with the interferometer
geometry (most importantly, the optical path difference). Because the signal demodulation quality and reliability hinge
heavily on the understanding of such relationships, the model sheds light on optimizing the sensor performance.
A mechanical resonator was fabricated on the tip of a standard single mode fiber with outer diameter of 125 μm. The
fabrication process involved a single-mode to a multimode fiber splicing, sputtering coating of a submicron gold nanofilm,
focused ion beam (FIB) patterning and chemical wet etching. A micro-vibrating disk with suspension arms was
formed on the sensing fiber tip, the resonance frequency of the vibrator is sensitive to mass loading on its surface.
Vibration was excited by laser excitation via the radiation pressure and the photo-thermal effect and detected by a CW
laser beam at another wavelength. The detected intensity of the fundamental and higher order harmonics can be
monitored for resonance frequency determination. The excitation and detection beams were multiplexed within a single
fiber link, which makes the sensor compact and versatile. The resonator maintained relatively high quality factor in air
and was successfully applied to the analysis of layer-by-layer electrostatic self-assembly and immuno-sensing.
An optical fiber Single/Multi-/Single-mode Intrinsic Fabry-Pérot Interferometer (SMS-IFPI) pressure sensor has been
demonstrated using a silica tube-based pressure transducer hermetically sealed by thermal fusion bonding. The sensor,
made entirely of fused silica, contains an IFPI strain sensor enclosed by a CO2 laser-bonded outer tube. A sensor
prototype is constructed and demonstrated for single point pressure sensing at high temperature (600°C), with temperature
compensation achieved through co-location of an SMS-IFPI temperature sensor. The inline geometry and low
transmission loss of the SMS-IFPI sensor makes it suitable for frequency division multiplexing (FDM) in a single fiber
branch. In future work, we envision multiplexing of up to eight such IFPI pressure sensors along a single fiber branch for
quasi-distributed pressure measurement.
Monitoring of gaseous species is important in a variety of applications including industrial process gas monitoring, mine
safety, and homeland security. Fiber optic sensors have been used in a variety of forms to monitor various types of
gaseous species. Optical fiber sensors utilizing both random hole and photonic crystal fibers have been investigated.
One limitation to these types of fiber sensors is the fact that the holes run parallel to the optic axis of the fiber, requiring
gases to diffuse over long distances. Diffusion of gases over long distances through tube sizes which are on the order of
microns is a relatively slow process. This can significantly impact the response time of the sensors which are made from
these types of fibers. This paper presents results on the development of optical fibers for gas sensing applications which
have holes extending in the radial direction as opposed to the longitudinal direction (as in the case of photonic crystal
fibers). The holes are made by a process which utilizes phase separation of the glass matrix at relatively low
temperatures. The secondary phase is removed by subsequent leaching processes, leaving a three dimensionally porous
structure. The porosity is arranged in a stochastic fashion within the fiber. Results of the fiber sensor development and
testing will be presented. The microstructural analysis of the fibers by scanning electron microscopy as well as the
optical characterization of the fibers will be presented. Fabrication procedures for the optical fibers and the optical fiber
sensors will also be described.
Effective response to potentially dangerous environmental situations that can arise requires accurate and real time data on the environment that is being monitored. The ability to respond in an appropriate time frame is determined by the sensitivity and response time of the method used for monitoring. Fiber optic sensors have been used and are capable of detecting chemical compounds within an environment; however the sensitivity and response time of this detection method needs to be improved for many sensing applications. Improving these characteristics can be accomplished by designing the structure of the optical fiber sensor to allow increased response time and sensitivity. Through the introduction of new structures and control of these structures, the sensitivity and response time can be designed for a specific application. We have developed a novel porous optical fiber that has potential applications in chemical and biological agent sensing systems. Sensing capabilities of the optical fiber are a result of the structure that is designed into the fiber. The structure of the fiber developed, results of characterization of the fiber and the methods of analysis employed are presented. Methods used to analyze this new fiber optic sensor include nitrogen absorption porosity data, scanning electron microscopy and optical microscopy, and optical characterizations. The structure of the optical fiber is produced by controlling the processing parameters during the fiber draw as well as post processing stages. Fabrication methods and the processing steps that are used during the fiber optic production are also presented. Effect of altering processing conditions on the sensor structure is detailed and how this affects the performance of the fiber.
Based on the readout and crosstalk analysis, a kind of multi-channel partial response maximum likelihood (MPRML) detection method which is suitable for photometric multi-wavelength optical disks has been brought forward, the PR mode and parameters have been discussed, and the optimal solution of the method has been given in the paper. Matlab simulation shows that the MPRML method is useful to improve BER performance and the optimal solution is proper. The experiments on the FPGA-based development board also show that MPRML is applicable for photometric multi-wavelength optical disks.
KEYWORDS: Remote sensing, Digital video discs, Optical discs, Compact discs, Optical storage, Bismuth, Data storage, Computer programming, Standards development
From CD to DVD to Blu-ray Disc, that optical disc all adopted the error-correction code to improve the storage. The error-correction code for the Blu-ray Disc, the up-to-the-minute optical disc, is more advanced than others. Many new technologies are applied in the Blu-ray Disc, especial the error-correction code which called Picket code is more powerful than RS and RSPC code. In the same condition, the error-code rate of the optical disc which used the Picket code is 1.5x10-18, and the optical disc used RSPC is 5.7x10-7. In this paper, the characteristic of those technologies which used in the optical disc will be discussed, include RS code used in CD system, RSPC code used in DVD system, and Picket code. Finally, it will add two different error matrixes to simulate the process of the error-correction code for the DVD system. In this simulating process, especially, we will compare the RS and RSPC code from mathematical direction in the simulation which is different from the professional comparison, this method can be easily accepted by beginner and the comparative result is very intuitionistic for freshman.
The data are stored in the alternative pits and lands for present optical disk, which is similar to the grating. Accordingly, the grating theory becomes the basis theory for the optical disk. The work presented in this paper focused on several aspects of the following: outlining the optical disk models adopted by the theories in print, analyzing the foundation basis of the models, and bringing forward a model which can be used for the new-fashioned optical storage, multi-wavelength photochromic optical storage. The classical scalar diffraction theory supposed that the effects of the optical disk on the incident beam were introducing the local phase delay that could be described by the optical path difference Δs, and the energy of the incident beam would not be absorbed. The two equations could respectively express the difference of the optical path: (1) Δs=n*Δh and (2) Δs=Δn*h. As the result of the analysis, we concluded that the tradition optical disk model fit for pit-land recording format and the cavity or bubble recording format. For the photochromic optical disk, the recording material, which absorbed the energy of the incident beam, was similar to the amplitude grating. The diffraction theory of this system was presented, and the equations for the readout signal were educed.
KEYWORDS: Reliability, Digital recording, Particle filters, Control systems, Field programmable gate arrays, Switches, Data storage, LCDs, Failure analysis, Data acquisition
In many real-time fields the sustained high-speed data recording system is required. This paper proposes a high-speed and sustained data recording system based on the complex-RAID 3+0. The system consists of Array Controller Module (ACM), String Controller Module (SCM) and Main Controller Module (MCM). ACM implemented by an FPGA chip is used to split the high-speed incoming data stream into several lower-speed streams and generate one parity code stream synchronously. It also can inversely recover the original data stream while reading. SCMs record lower-speed streams from the ACM into the SCSI disk drivers. In the SCM, the dual-page buffer technology is adopted to implement speed-matching function and satisfy the need of sustainable recording. MCM monitors the whole system, controls ACM and SCMs to realize the data stripping, reconstruction, and recovery functions. The method of how to determine the system scale is presented. At the end, two new ways Floating Parity Group (FPG) and full 2D-Parity Group (full 2D-PG) are proposed to improve the system reliability and compared with the Traditional Parity Group (TPG). This recording system can be used conveniently in many areas of data recording, storing, playback and remote backup with its high-reliability.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.