Cracking of cementitious materials affects the durability of concrete structures and might lead to premature failure. As manual repairs are costly and labor-intensive, self-healing mixtures have been studied. The advantage of cementitious blends lies in the inherent ability of the material to repair damage through autogenous healing. As water is essential to be present to induce autogenous healing, the healing ability can be improved by adding water reservoirs in the form of superabsorbent polymers (SAPs). As a wide variety of SAPs with different characteristics exists, an assessment of their capacity to improve the self-healing ability is necessary to optimize the mix design. While most standardized evaluation techniques are limited in their characterization potential or due to their intrusive nature, ultrasonic measurements allow for a non-destructive material characterization. Due to their sensitivity to the obtained microstructure, the damage present and the elastic properties of the material under study, the self-healing evolution can be monitored, and the results provide information on the regained mechanical performance. In the present study, various set-ups are utilized to assess the self-healing capacity of mortars with and without SAPs. The experimental framework includes coupled ultrasonic evaluations through surface wave and transmission measurements. In addition, numerical simulations were performed to isolate the healing layer and simulate the effect of healing by increasing the stiffness of the material in the crack. A comparison between experiments and simulations allowed to assess the elastic modulus of the deposited healing products.
The adoption of self-healing cementitious materials has gained attention as an alternative to costly and labour-intensive manual repairs. Cementitious blends possess an inherent ability to repair formed cracks through so-called autogenous healing. Whereas the efficiency of autogenous healing remains limited as moisture needs to access the cracks, the healing capacity can be improved through the inclusion of superabsorbent polymers (SAPs). To encourage the use of these self-healing blends within the construction industry, an assessment of the healed state is necessary to ensure a structure’s safety. The requirements for such evaluation method comprise the ability of assessing the regained mechanical performance, while maintaining the structural capacity of the member under study. A non-destructive method that has proven its potential is the application of ultrasonic waves, which are sensitive to the elastic properties of the material they travel through. Coupled ultrasound is currently most often used, while air-coupled ultrasonic measurements allow to reduce the occurring coupling variability. In this study, the self-healing evolution of cementitious mixtures with and without SAPs was assessed through coupled and air-coupled ultrasound. A comparison between both techniques confirmed the potential of air-coupled ultrasound, paving the way for automated self-healing evaluations.
Early-age concrete undergoes displacements and volume changes due to ongoing processes such as settlement, hydration, shrinkage, and cracking, which can strongly affect its durability and long-term performance. In this paper, fresh concrete is monitored by the non-destructive techniques of Acoustic Emission (AE) and Digital Image Correlation (DIC). Elastic waves released by the physical processes taking place while concrete is in a fresh state can be well-recorded by AE, while the three-dimensional strain and displacement evolution on the surface can be measured by DIC. Monitoring fresh concrete is of paramount importance to ensure the desired final mechanical properties, especially when novel admixtures for internal curing such as SuperAbsorbent Polymers (SAPs) are added to the mixture. SAPs are particles that can swell by absorbing water when exposed to it, and later release it back to the cementitious matrix when the internal relative humidity linked to the capillary pressure decreases, mitigating autogenous shrinkage. These admixtures strongly interact with the microstructure, resulting in an increased amount of AE activity. The motivation of this study is to obtain real-time information on the different ongoing processes in fresh concrete using AE and compare the results to concrete containing SAPs. Specimens are subjected to different environmental conditions, to monitor the changes in the SAP activity. Results are complemented by DIC to confirm the mitigation of shrinkage by the SAPs. The DIC results showed that SAPs mitigate settlement and shrinkage in early-age concrete, while AE showed SAP concrete exposed to windy conditions demonstrated a delay in the SAP activation, lower amplitude values and higher peak frequency values than the ambient SAP concrete.
Elastic waves are commonly used for the evaluation of concrete structural health. Wave speed is firmly connected to the stiffness and is indicative of strength and damage condition. When access to multiple sides is limited, the evaluation takes place solely from the open surface where all sensors are placed. In this case, the size of the sensor is crucial because of the “aperture effect”. This is basically the phenomenon of wavelengths shorter than the sensor size cancelling each other since both their positive and negative phases act simultaneously on the sensor’s surface. Although this effect has been studied relatively to the amplitude and the frequency content of the surface wave pulses, its influence on velocity has not been similarly studied, even though the velocity value is connected to concrete stiffness, porosity, damage degree and is even empirically used to evaluate the compressive strength. In this study, numerical simulations are conducted with virtual sensors of different sizes to measure the surface wave velocity as well as the dispersion (or its dependence on frequency) in relation to the sensor size on homogeneous and heterogeneous material. The strong effect of sensor size is indicated and suggestions towards rules for reliable measurements on a concrete surface are made. Experimental measurements on cementitious media by sensors of different sizes are also conducted validating the numerical results.
Self-healing cementitious composites provide a solution to the application of costly, manual repairs of construction elements. Additionally, as the healing mechanism is inherently present within the cementitious mixture, issues concerning the repair of structures with limited accessibility are omitted. However, the assessment of the regained mechanical performance as well as the monitoring of the evolution of the healed properties requires destructive tests, which cannot be applied in situ. For this reason, a non-destructive test set-up based on ultrasonic wave transmission was established. Thanks to the sensitivity of ultrasonic waves to the material properties, significant changes between the uncracked, cracked and the healed state of cementitious specimens can be verified, enabling the crack closure monitoring over time as well as the visualization of the interior. In this study, a comparison between the healing ability of a reference mortar and a mortar with superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) was performed and a correlation with the crack width evolution was demonstrated.
Ultrasonic monitoring of fresh cement-based materials is important as pulse speed and attenuation are indicative of the increasing stiffness of the medium, and enable characterization of the curing stage and projections to the mechanical strength from an early age. Despite its importance, practical application is not straightforward due to severe heterogeneity and inherent damping. One crucial parameter in the ultrasonic behavior of fresh cement is the air bubbles, which impose a frequency dependent phase velocity and attenuation, as also observed in all bubbly liquids. In this study, ultrasonic experiments take place in fresh mortar as well as in reference media like water and shampoo. Results show that both shampoo and mortar exhibit strong dispersion relatively to water, seen by the dependence of phase velocity on frequency. Gradually and as bubbles are released due to gravitational settlement (in shampoo) or constrained (hardening of cement) the dispersive trend weakens reaching towards a nearly flat dispersion curve like water. The results highlight the influence of cavities which are considered one of the strongest types of scatterers, while quantification of cement ultrasonic dispersion opens the way for more accurate characterization of the curing behavior.
In this study, fracture experiments on fiber reinforced concrete beams are conducted. The aim is to examine the level of restoration in the different types of fiber reinforced concrete specimens by means of acoustic emission (AE) technique. The concrete specimens have been reinforced with three different types of metal fibers by means of shape and geometry and were tested in four-point bending. Consequently, they were repaired by means of suitable epoxy agent and mechanically loaded again. The repair has been conducted with epoxy resin injection to the main macrocrack that has been developed during the four-point bending. This work discusses the passive monitoring of fracture in repaired with epoxy resin fiber reinforced concrete specimens and shows that AE parameters provide good insight of the microstructure and characterize the level of restoration which is important especially when other NDE techniques cannot be used because of construction limitations.
Nowadays, the use of adhesives in building materials for enhancing the mechanical properties and the final performance at the maximum level is standard practice. Moreover, the interest of the construction industry for extensively testing the effectiveness of the new modified products is increased. This study aims to examine the fracture behavior of mortar specimens modified with waterproofing adhesives using acoustic emission (AE). For the mortar beams' production, the portion of active mix water has been changed with the use of different kinds of emulsion resins for investigating the waterproofing mechanism at final usage. For this, the slurries that have been examined are commonly used at the construction of swimming pools. The specimens were tested in three-point bending and compression. The ultrasonic velocity of the samples was also determined. The results indicate that the use of adhesives in mortars can be successfully characterized by AE and ultrasonic parameters, making elastic wave nondestructive evaluation a valuable tool in the growing sector of building materials using adhesives.
The present paper deals with the acoustic emission (AE) monitoring of fracture behavior of repaired marble specimens. Different types of specimens were ultrasonically interrogated. Subsequently, damage was induced to these specimens by three-point bending. The damaged specimens were repaired using a suitable epoxy agent; then they were mechanically loaded again. Apart from the well-known correlation of pulse velocity to strength for building materials, which also holds for the materials used in this study, AE provides a unique insight in the fracture behavior of the specimens. A statistical analysis of the experimental data has been performed to investigate the correlation between AE parameters and the strength of the specimens. This work discusses the passive monitoring of fracture in repaired marble specimens and shows that AE parameters, well-known to successfully characterize cementitious materials, also provide satisfactory results in characterizing monolithic materials such as marble. It is concluded that AE monitoring during a proof loading can provide good insight information of the materials and characterize their restoration.
The final properties of cementitious materials (strength and durability) strongly depend on the mix proportions and the fresh state of the latter. It is therefore imperative to investigate the early stages, assess the quality of the mixes as well as monitor their time evolution. In this direction, ultrasonic measurements, since many decades, have been proposed as the most efficient tool for quality control and condition characterization due to their ability to inspect, detect, locate and continuously monitor the material’s performance throughout the entire lifetime. However, wave propagation can be quite complicated, especially if the material heterogeneity and wave-microstructure interactions are taken into account. For this reason, in the current study, the ultrasonic experiments are complemented by numerical analyses of wave propagation offering the advantage of easier, faster, repeatable and parametric implementation. The strong dispersion and attenuation trends observed in both the experiments and the numerical tests make, herein, the additional implementation of scattering theories necessary as the third pillar. The results show good match between the experimental and the numerical methods as well as between the numerical simulations and scattering theories, thus providing a more holistic insight of wave propagation in microstructured cementitious materials. In the framework of this study, cement pastes and mortars (containing sand or glass beads as aggregates) are investigated, while the results are demonstrated in terms of pulse velocity and attenuation as a function of frequency revealing interesting information on the influence of the aggregate content on the quality of the mixes.
Nowadays, more and more, the monitoring of concrete’s setting and hardening as well as concrete’s condition assessment and mechanical characterization is realized with the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity technique. However, despite its increasing use, the high potential and the vast applicability over a wide range of materials and structures, the aforementioned nondestructive testing technique is only partially exploited since a) a default pulse usually not selected by the user is transmitted, b) a single frequency band dependent on the testing equipment (pulse generator and sensors) is excited and c) usually the first part of the signal is only considered. Moreover, the technique, as defined by its name, is based on pulse velocity measurements which strongly rely on a predefined threshold value for the calculation of the travel time between the transmitting and receiving sensor. To overcome all these issues, in the current experimental campaign, user-defined signals are generated, a broad range of ultrasonic frequencies is excited, while the full length of the signal is also taken into account. In addition, the pulse velocity measurements are replaced by the more advanced phase velocity calculations determined by reference phase points of the time domain signals or by phase differences of the signals transformed in the frequency domain. The experiments are mainly conducted in hardened concrete specimens but the aggregates are substituted by spherical glass beads of well-defined sizes and contents in order to better control the microstructure. Reference liquid media are also examined for comparison purposes. The results in both cases show strong dispersive trends indicated by significant changes in the phase velocity.
The mechanical behavior of a fiber-reinforced concrete after extensive thermal damage is studied in this paper. Undulated steel fibers have been used for reinforcement. After being exposed to direct fire action at the temperature of 850°C, specimens were subjected to bending and compression in order to determine the loss of strength and stiffness in comparison to intact specimens and between the two types. The fire damage was assessed using nondestructive evaluation techniques, specifically ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and acoustic emission (AE). Apart from the strong, well known, correlation of UPV to strength (both bending and compressive), AE parameters based mainly on the frequency and duration of the emitted signals after cracking events showed a similar or, in certain cases, better correlation with the mechanical parameters and temperature. This demonstrates the sensitivity of AE to the fracture incidents which eventually lead to failure of the material and it is encouraging for potential in-situ use of the technique, where it could provide indices with additional characterization capability concerning the mechanical performance of concrete after it subjected to fire.
In construction sector marble and granite are widespread because of their unique properties through the centuries. The issue of repair in these materials is crucial in structural integrity and maintenance of the monuments through the world, as well as in modern buildings. In this study fracture experiments on granite specimens are conducted. The goal is to compare the typical acoustic emission (AE) signals from different modes (namely bending and shear) in plain granite and marble specimens as well as repaired in the crack surface with polyester adhesive. The distinct signature of the cracking modes is reflected on acoustic waveform parameters like the amplitude, rise time and frequency. Conclusions about how the repair affects the mechanical properties as well as the acoustic waveform parameters are drawn. Results show that AE helps to characterize the shift between dominant fracture modes using a simple analysis of AE descriptors as well as the integrity of the specimen (plain or repaired). This offers the potential for in-situ application mainly in the maintenance of the monuments where the need for continuous and nondestructive monitoring is imperative, but always care should be taken for the distortion of the signal, which increases with the propagation distance and can seriously mask the results in an actual case.
Protecting the environment and future generations against the potential hazards arising from high-level and heat emitting radioactive waste is a worldwide concern. Following this direction, the Belgian Agency for Radioactive Waste and Enriched Fissile Materials has come up with the reference design which considers the geological disposal of the waste in purely indurated clay. In this design the wastes are first post-conditioned in massive concrete structures called Supercontainers before being transported to the underground repositories. The Supercontainers are cylindrical structures which consist of four engineering barriers that from the inner to the outer surface are namely: the overpack, the filler, the concrete buffer and possibly the envelope. The overpack, which is made of carbon steel, is the place where the vitrified wastes and spent fuel are stored. The buffer, which is made of concrete, creates a highly alkaline environment ensuring slow and uniform overpack corrosion as well as radiological shielding. In order to evaluate the feasibility to construct such Supercontainers two scaled models have so far been designed and tested. The first scaled model indicated crack formation on the surface of the concrete buffer but the absence of a crack detection and monitoring system precluded defining the exact time of crack initiation, as well as the origin, the penetration depth, the crack path and the propagation history. For this reason, the second scaled model test was performed to obtain further insight by answering to the aforementioned questions using the Digital Image Correlation, Acoustic Emission and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity nondestructive testing techniques.
The propagation of longitudinal waves through concrete materials is strongly affected by dispersion. This is clearly indicated experimentally from the increase of phase velocity at low frequencies whereas many attempts have been made to explain this behavior analytically. Since the classical elastic theory for bulk media is by default non-dispersive, enhanced theories have been developed. The most commonly used higher order theory is the dipolar gradient elastic theory which takes into account the microstructural effects in heterogeneous media like concrete. The microstructural effects are described by two internal length scale parameters (g and h) which correspond to the micro-stiffness and micro-inertia respectively. In the current paper, this simplest possible version of the general gradient elastic theory proposed by Mindlin is reproduced through non-local lattice models consisting of discrete springs and masses. The masses simulate the aggregates of the concrete specimen whereas the springs are the mechanical similitude of the concrete matrix. The springs in these models are connecting the closest masses between them as well as the second or third closest to each other masses creating a non-local system of links. These non-neighboring interactions are represented by massless springs of constant stiffness while on the other hand one cannot neglect the significant mass of the springs connecting neighboring masses as this is responsible for the micro-inertia term. The major advantage of the presented lattice models is the fact that the considered microstructural effects can be accurately expressed as a function of the size and the mechanical properties of the microstructure.
The objective of the present study was the repair monitoring of an extensively cracked concrete floor using the Impulse – Response method. The study included the evaluation of the condition of the concrete floor that suffered from extensive cracking on its surface, through systematic tests. The purpose of the study was to investigate the causes that led to extensive cracking on the floor surface in order to plan the repair strategy. The investigation included a thorough visual inspection and recording of cracks, estimation of the crack depth using ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements, investigation for voids between the concrete floor and the underlying aggregate layer using the Impulse – Response method, concrete floor thickness estimation using the Impact – Echo method and concrete quality estimation using cores cutting. The repair method that was chosen was based on grout injections in order to fill the voids located between the concrete and the underlying aggregate layer. The area, where the injections took place, was inspected using the Impulse – Response method before and after the injections for monitoring purposes and a secondary grid was designed after considering the results. The area was inspected for a third time, after injecting in the secondary grid, in order to confirm the successful filling of the voids.
In this work an innovative methodology was employed for monitoring the fracture behavior in silicon carbide fiberreinforced ceramic matrix composites. This new methodology was based on the combined use of IR thermography and acoustic emission. Compact tension SiC/BMAS specimens were tested with unloading/reloading loops and the thermal dissipation due to crack propagation and other damage mechanisms was monitored by IR thermography. The accuracy of this technique was benchmarked by optical measurements of crack length. In addition, using acoustic emission descriptors, such as activity during the unloading part of the cycles, provided the critical level of damage accumulation in the material. Acoustic emission allowed to closely follow the actual crack growth monitored by IR thermography, enabling quantitative measurements.
The Impulse Excitation Technique (IET) is a useful tool for characterizing the structural condition of concrete.
Processing the obtained dynamic parameters (damping ratio, response frequency) as a function of response amplitude,
clear and systematic differences appear between intact and cracked specimens, while factors like age and sustained load
are also influential. Simultaneously, Acoustic Emission (AE) and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) techniques are used
during the three point bending test of the beams in order to supply additional information on the level of damage
accumulation which resulted in the specific dynamic behavior revealed by the IET test.
In this work the flexural behavior of textile reinforced cement (TRC) laminate is examined using acoustic emission (AE). The TRC composite is a combination of inorganic phosphate cement (IPC) with randomly distributed glass fibres. IPC has been developed at the “Vrije Universiteit Brussel” and shows a neutral pH meaning that glass fibers are hardly attacked. During bending, stresses lead to the activation of damage mechanisms like matrix cracking, delaminations and fiber pull-out being in succession or overlapping in time. AE records the responses of the damage propagation events and allows the monitoring of the fracture behavior from the onset to the final stage. The effect of the span in three-point bending tests, which is varied to create different stress fields, is targeted. Parameters like duration and frequency reveal information about the mode of the damage sources in relation to the span. Results show that as the span decreases, the dominant damage mode shifts away from bending and acquires more shear characteristics by increasing the interlaminar shearing events.
Cortical bone is one of the most complex heterogeneous media exhibiting strong wave dispersion. In such media when a burst of energy goes into the formation of elastic waves the different modes tend to separate according to the velocities of the frequency components as usually occurs in waveguides. In this study human femur specimens were subjected to elastic wave measurements. The main objective of the study is using broadband acoustic emission sensors to measure parameters like wave velocity dispersion and attenuation. Additionally, waveform parameters like the duration, rise time and average frequency, are also examined relatively to the propagation distance as a preparation for acoustic emission monitoring during fracture. To do so, four sensors were placed at adjacent positions on the surface of the cortical bone in order to record the transient response after pencil lead break excitation. The results are compared to similar measurements on a bulk metal piece which does not exhibit heterogeneity at the scale of the propagating wave lengths. It is shown that the microstructure of the tissue imposes a dispersive behavior for frequencies below 1 MHz and care should be taken for interpretation of the signals.
The characterization of the dominant fracture mode may assist in the prediction of the remaining life of a concrete structure due to the sequence between successive tensile and shear mechanisms. Acoustic emission sensors record the elastic responses after any fracture event converting them into electric waveforms. The characteristics of the waveforms vary according to the movement of the crack tips, enabling characterization of the original mode. In this study fracture experiments on concrete beams are conducted. The aim is to examine the typical acoustic signals emitted by different fracture modes (namely tension due to bending and shear) in a concrete matrix. This is an advancement of a recent study focusing on smaller scale mortar and marble specimens. The dominant stress field and ultimate fracture mode is controlled by modification of the four-point bending setup while acoustic emission is monitored by six sensors at fixed locations. Conclusions about how to distinguish the sources based on waveform parameters of time domain (duration, rise time) and frequency are drawn. Specifically, emissions during the shear loading exhibit lower frequencies and longer duration than tensile. Results show that, combination of AE features may help to characterize the shift between dominant fracture modes and contribute to the structural health monitoring of concrete. This offers the basis for in-situ application provided that the distortion of the signal due to heterogeneous wave path is accounted for.
The prediction of the remaining life of a structure can be assisted by the characterization of the current cracking mode.
Usually tensile phenomena precede shear fracture. Due to the different movement of the crack sides according to the
dominant mode, the emitted elastic energy possesses waveforms with different characteristics. These are captured by
acoustic emission sensors and analyzed for their frequency content and waveform parameters. In this study fracture
experiments on structural materials are conducted. The goal is to check the typical acoustic signals emitted by different
modes as well as to estimate the effect of microstructure in the emitted wave as it propagates from the source to the
receivers. The dominant fracture mode is controlled by modification of the setup and acoustic emission is monitored by
two sensors at fixed locations. Signals belonging to tensile events acquire higher frequency and shorter duration than
shear ones. The influence of heterogeneity is also obvious since waveforms of the same source event acquired at
different distances exhibit shifted characteristics due to damping and scattering. The materials tested were cement
mortar, as a material with microstructure, and granite as representative of more homogeneous materials. Results show
that in most cases, AE leads to characterization of the dominant fracture mode using a simple analysis of few AE
descriptors. This offers the potential for in-situ application provided that care is taken for the distortion of the signal,
which increases with the propagation distance and can seriously mask the results in an actual case.
Acoustic emission (AE) technique is commonly applied in different materials in order to evaluate their internal fracturing condition in real time. Apart from the number of acquired signals, which are correlated to the number of active cracking sources, qualitative features of the acoustic waveforms shed light in the dominant fracturing mode. This is due to the fact that the emitted waves depend on the relative motion of the crack sides at each incident. The fracture process of most engineering materials includes shift between modes and therefore, non-invasive and real time characterization of the dominant mode supplies information on the current condition as well as poses an early warning before final failure. Although a lot of work has been done on acoustic emission characterization of fatigue damage, the work on welded components is scarse. In the present study aluminum plates are cross-welded and loaded until fracture in tension-tension fatigue experiments at different load levels. Their full acoustic activity is recorded by four sensors along with all mechanical parameters. It is shown that study of the acoustic emission rate relatively to the applied load, and qualitative waveform parameters like the frequency content and duration can be used to study the evolution of the crack under the different modes.
Current work deals with the nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of the fracture behavior of ceramic matrix composite (CMCs) materials using combined infrared (IR) thermographic and acoustic emission (AE) characterization. IR thermography as a non-destructive, real-time and non-contact technique, allows the detection of heat waves generated by the thermo-mechanical coupling and the intrinsic energy dissipated during mechanical cyclic loading of the sample. Two different thermographic methodologies, based on the measurement of the surface temperature and on the intrinsically dissipated energy respectively, were applied in order to monitor the crack initiation and propagation and to rapidly assess the fatigue limit of cross-ply SiC/BMAS composites. Simultaneously, AE monitoring was employed to record a wide spectrum of cracking events ranging from matrix cracking to fiber fracture and pull-out. AE event rate, as well as qualitative indices like the rise time and peak frequency reveal crucial information allowing the characterization of the severity of fracture in relation to the applied load. Additionally, rapid assessment of the fatigue limit of CMCs composites was also attempted by AE. Testing a specimen at different load levels for predetermined blocks of cycles shows that the AE acquisition rate remains low for loads below the fatigue limit, while it increases abruptly for higher levels. The thermographic assesment of fatigue limit is in total agreement with the AE results enabling the reliable evaluation of the fatigue limit of the material by testing just one specimen. The application of combined NDE techniques proved very valuable for benchmarking purposes while the sensitivities of the methods act complementarily to each other providing a very detailed assessment of the damage status of the material in real time.
Metal materials and structures are commonly inspected by the acoustic emission (AE) technique. Any event of crack
propagation or corrosion development results in the emission of elastic waves which are captured by sensors on the
surface of the material. Study of the AE signal incoming rate, as well as qualitative signal parameters, reveals crucial
information on the extent of damage and the cracking mode. Based on laboratory experiments, classification criteria are
established concerning the type of the active damage source. However, elastic wave propagation in metal plates is
dispersive, forcing different frequencies to propagate on different velocities. This leads to shape distortion of the signals,
altering their specific features, like duration, amplitude, number of cycles which are crucial for AE characterization. Due
to dispersion, an AE event from a single source will be acquired with very different shape in distinct sensor positions and
the differences will be accumulated as the propagation path increases. In the present paper numerical simulations of
wave propagation in metal plates are conducted. The aim is to investigate plate wave dispersion, not from the classical
ultrasonics, but from the AE point of view, quantifying the effect of distance on the shape of the propagating pulses and
the specific AE parameters. Indicative experiments on metal plates confirm the effect of distance on the wave parameters.
Consequently, a procedure to "correct" the AE parameters based on the propagating distance between the source crack
and the sensor is discussed. This way the original AE parameters of the signal as emitted by the source are calculated and
the effect of distortion which masks the original content is cleared out. It is shown that any classification scheme based
on AE parameters, should incorporate the information of the source location relatively to the sensor since long
propagation distance causes strong changes in the waveform, masking the information of the original source.
Infrared thermography is one of several non-destructive testing techniques which can be used for detection of damage in
materials such as ceramic matrix composites. The purpose of this study is to apply a non-destructive methodology for
analyzing the thermal effects in ceramic matrix composites caused by cyclic loading. Mechanical stresses induced by
cyclic loading cause heat release in the composite due to failure of the interface, which results in increasing the
material's temperature. The heat wave, generated by the thermo-mechanical coupling, and the intrinsic energy dissipated
during mechanical cyclic loading of the sample were detected by an infrared camera. The results were correlated with
acoustic emission events.
The importance of evaluating the quality of cementitious materials at an age as early as possible is well known. High
performance cementitious materials usually include chemical admixtures like accelerators, plasticizers or air entraining
agents in order to tailor the properties of the material at the fresh or hardened state. Ultrasonic methods have been
developed for monitoring the hydration process. Measuring the transit time and amplitude of the pulse at regular
intervals, the elastic modulus development with time can be calculated and therefore, the contribution of the admixtures
can be evaluated. However, this requires monitoring for a period of at least a few hours, which although fast compared to
the standard compressive test, still is not fast enough to allow decisions about accepting the material before placement in
the construction forms based on the suitability of concrete. The general quality of concrete and specifically the
contribution of the admixtures should be assessed immediately. In the present paper fresh cementitious material is
examined by ultrasound. The excited frequency is varied in order to apply different wavelengths, which are influenced
differently by the constituent materials. The effect of chemical plasticizer is examined through the release of air bubbles
and the change in viscosity it imposes. Wave velocity vs. frequency curves for different mixes show that the existence of
sand plays an important role due to interaction with different wave lengths. The possibility to characterize the
effectiveness of chemical admixtures by a single dispersion and attenuation measurement just after mixing is discussed.
Infrared Thermography (IrT) has been shown to be capable of detecting and monitoring service induced damage of
repair composite structures. Full-field imaging, along with portability are the primary benefits of the thermographic
technique. On-line lock-in thermography has been reported to successfully monitor damage propagation or/and stress
concentration in composite coupons, as mechanical stresses in structures induce heat concentration phenomena around
flaws. During mechanical fatigue, cyclic loading plays the role of the heating source and this allows for critical and
subcritical damage identification and monitoring using thermography. The Electrical Potential Change Technique
(EPCT) is a new method for damage identification and monitoring during loading. The measurement of electrical
potential changes at specific points of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRPs) under load are reported to enable the
monitoring of strain or/and damage accumulation. Along with the aforementioned techniques Finally, Acoustic Emission
(AE) method is well known to provide information about the location and type of damage. Damage accumulation due to
cyclic loading imposes differentiation of certain parameters of AE like duration and energy. Within the scope of this
study, infrared thermography is employed along with AE and EPCT methods in order to assess the integrity of bonded
repair patches on composite substrates and to monitor critical and subcritical damage induced by the mechanical loading.
The combined methodologies were effective in identifying damage initiation and propagation of bonded composite
repairs.
The attainment of structural integrity of the reinforcing matrix in composite materials is of primary importance for the
final properties of the composite structure. The detailed monitoring of the curing process on the other hand is paramount
(i) in defining the optimal conditions for the impregnation of the reinforcement by the matrix (ii) in limiting the effects of
the exotherm produced by the polymerization reaction which create unwanted thermal stresses and (iii) in securing
optimal behavior in matrix controlled properties, such as off axis or shear properties and in general the durability of the
composite. Dielectric curing monitoring is a well known technique for distinguishing between the different stages of the
polymerization of a typical epoxy system. The technique successfully predicts the gelation and the vitrification of the
epoxy and has been extended for the monitoring of prepregs. Recent work has shown that distinct changes in the
properties of the propagated sound in the epoxy which undergoes polymerization is as well directly related to the gelation
and vitrification of the resin, as well as to the attainment of the final properties of the resin system.
In this work, a typical epoxy is simultaneously monitored using acoustic and dielectric methods. The system is
isothermally cured in an oven to avoid effects from the polymerization exotherm. Typical broadband sensors are
employed for the acoustic monitoring, while flat interdigital sensors are employed for the dielectric scans. All stages of
the polymerization process were successfully monitored and the validity of both methods was cross checked and verified.
KEYWORDS: Composites, Acoustic emission, Sensors, Nondestructive evaluation, Wave propagation, Manufacturing, Control systems, Acoustics, Picture Archiving and Communication System, Signal processing
This study deals with the investigation of cross ply composites failure by acoustic emission (AE). Broadband AE sensors
monitor the different sources of failure in coupons of this material during a tensile loading-unloading test. The
cumulative number of AE activity, and other qualitative indices based on the shape of the waves, were well correlated to
the sustained load. AE parameters indicate the shift of failure mechanisms within the composite as the load increases.
The ultimate goal is a methodology based on NDT techniques for real time characterization of the degradation and
identification of the fracture stage of advanced composite materials.
The role of coating in preserving the bonding between steel fibers and concrete is investigated in this paper. Straight
types of fibers with and without chemical coating are used in steel fiber reinforced concrete mixes. The specimens are
tested in bending with concurrent monitoring of their acoustic emission activity throughout the failure process using two
broadband sensors. The different stages of fracture (before, during and after main crack formation) exhibit different
acoustic fingerprints, depending on the mechanisms that are active during failure (concrete matrix micro-cracking,
macro-cracking and fiber pull out). Additionally, it was seen that the acoustic emission behaviour exhibits distinct
characteristics between coated and uncoated fiber specimens. Specifically, the frequency of the emitted waves is much
lower for uncoated fiber specimens, especially after the main fracture incident, during the fiber pull out stage of failure.
Additionally, the duration and the rise time of the acquired waveforms are much higher for uncoated specimens. These
indices are used to distinguish between tensile and shear fracture in concrete and suggest that friction is much stronger
for the uncoated fibers. On the other hand, specimens with coated fibers exhibit more tensile characteristics, more likely
due to the fact that the bond between fibers and concrete matrix is stronger. The fibers therefore, are not simply pulled
out but also detach a small volume of the brittle concrete matrix surrounding them. It seems that the effect of chemical
coating can be assessed by acoustic emission parameters additionally to the macroscopic measurements of ultimate
toughness.
Acoustic Emission (AE) supplies information on the fracturing behavior of different materials. In this study, AE activity
was recorded during fatigue experiments in metal CT specimens with a V-shape notch which were loaded in fatigue until
final failure. AE parameters exhibit a sharp increase approximately 1000 cycles before than final failure. Therefore, the
use of acoustic emission parameters is discussed both in terms of characterization of the damage mechanisms, as well as
a tool for the prediction of ultimate life of the material under fatigue. Additionally, an innovative nondestructive
methodology based on lock-in thermography is developed to determine the crack growth rate using thermographic
mapping of the material undergoing fatigue. The thermographic results on the crack growth rate of aluminium alloys
were then correlated with measurements obtained by the conventional compliance method, and found to be in agreement.
One of the most frequent problems in concrete structures is corrosion of metal reinforcement. It occurs when the steel
reinforcement is exposed to environmental agents. The corrosion products occupy greater volume than the steel
consumed, leading to internal expansion stresses. When the stresses exceed concrete strength, eventually lead to
corrosion-induced cracking beneath the surface. These cracks do not show any visual sign until they break the surface,
exposing the structure to more accelerated deterioration. In order to develop a methodology for sub-surface damage
characterization, a combination of non destructive testing (NDT) techniques was applied. Thermography is specialized in
subsurface damage identification due to anomalies that inhomogeneities impose on the temperature field. Additionally,
ultrasonic surface waves are constrained near the surface and therefore, are ideal for characterization of near-surface
damage. In this study, an infrared camera scans the specimen in order to indicate the position of potential damage. For
cases of small cracks, the specimens are allowed to cool and the cooling-off curve is monitored for more precise results.
Consequently, ultrasonic sensors are placed on the specified part of the surface in order to make a more detailed
assessment for the depth of the crack. Although there is no visual sign of damage, surface waves are influenced in terms
of velocity and attenuation. The combination of the NDT techniques seems promising for real structures assessment.
The acoustic emission (AE) behaviour of steel fibre reinforced concrete is studied in this paper. The experiments were
conducted in four-point bending with concurrent monitoring of AE signals. The sensors used, were of broadband
response in order to capture a wide range of fracturing phenomena. The results indicate that AE parameters undergo
significant changes much earlier than the final fracture of the specimens, even if the AE hit rate seems approximately
constant. Specifically, the Ib-value which takes into account the amplitude distribution of the recent AE hits decreases
when the load reaches about 60-70 % of its maximum value. Additionally, the average frequency of the signals decreases
abruptly when a fracture incident occurs, indicating that matrix cracking events produce higher frequencies than fibre
pull-out events. It is concluded that proper study of AE parameters enables the characterization of structural health of large structures in cases where remote monitoring is applied.
Acoustic emission is a powerful technique for identifying and monitoring the evolution of service induced degradation in
structural components and localising damage. The present study is dedicated to the investigation of model composite
systems in order to identify, locate and quantify service induced damage. These systems are cross ply translucent glass
fibre reinforced composite materials. In cross ply composites, service induced primary damage is manifested in the form
of matrix cracking of the off-axis layers. For the purposes of this study, the cross ply composite were subjected to step
loading with the concurrent recording of the acoustic activity. At specific intervals of the loading process the propagation
characteristics of ultrasonic waves were also recorded using the acoustic emission sensors in a pulser-receiver setup. The
acoustic emission activity has been successfully correlated to damage accumulation of the cross ply laminates, while
specific acoustic emission indices proved sensitive to the various modes that evolve during the loading.
Surface deterioration is the most common type of concrete damage. In the case of subsurface damage the difficulty of
characterization increases as there is no visual evidence of the crack. Additionally since the close to surface layer of the
material is intact, the sensitivity of the longitudinal wave velocity, which is typically measured for inspection purposes,
is questionable. In the present paper, cracks were created in steel fiber reinforced concrete specimens by four point
bending. Wave characteristics were then measured on the intact surfaces (compression side) using common acoustic
emission transducers. It was seen that although there was no visual sign of the crack, Rayleigh as well as longitudinal
wave velocities were influenced showing clear decrease relatively to the sound material. Additionally other parameters
such as the amplitude or energy of the waves were much more sensitive to damage. In order to explain the results,
numerical simulations were conducted making a parametric study between the depth of the sound layer, the propagating
wavelength and the measured wave parameters. It is concluded that by scanning a surface with simple acoustic one sided
measurements, the identification of the location of the subsurface damage is possible, while the propagating wave gives
information about the form and depth of the crack.
This work deals with the AE behavior of concrete under four-point bending. Different contents of steel fibers were
included to investigate their influence on the load-bearing capacity and on the fracture mechanisms. The AE waveform
characteristics revealed that, although tension was the dominant mechanism of fracture for the plain material, the
increase in the fiber content resulted in extension of the shear failure due to improvement of the weak tensile properties
of concrete. Appropriate AE indices employed for early warning prior to macroscopic failure can lead to more suitable
design of the reinforcement, in order to withstand the specific stresses.
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