Physical optics is one of the subjects in the Grade of Optics and Optometry in Spanish universities. The students who come to this degree often have difficulties to understand subjects that are related to physics. For this reason, the aim of this work is to develop optics simulation software that provides a virtual laboratory for studying the effects of different aspects of physical optics phenomena. This software can let optical undergraduates simulate many optical systems for a better understanding of the practical competences associated with the theoretical concepts studied in class. This interactive environment unifies the information that brings the manual of the practices, provides the visualization of the physical phenomena and allows users to vary the values of the parameters that come into play to check its effect. So, this virtual tool is the perfect complement to learning more about the practices developed in the laboratory. This software will be developed through the choices which have the Matlab to generate Graphical User Interfaces or GUIs. A set of knobs, buttons and handles will be included in the GUI’s in order to control the parameters of the different physics phenomena. Graphics can also be inserted in the GUIs to show the behavior of such phenomena. Specifically, by using this software, the student is able to analyze the behaviour of the transmittance and reflectance of the TE and TM modes, the polarized light through of the Malus’Law or degree of polarization.
High spatial frequencies in holographic gratings are difficult to obtain by limitations of the recording material. In this work, the results obtained after storing holographic transmission gratings with a spatial frequency of 2656 lines/mm in a material based on PVA/AA are presented. A chain transfer agent, the 4,4 '-azobis (4-cyanopentanoic acid) (ACPA) has been incorporated in the material composition to improve the spatial resolution. The concentration of the ACPA in the different compositions of the material has been modified in order to find the optimal concentration which gets obtain the maximum diffraction efficiency for high spatial frequencies.
Protein deposition is one of the most frequent contaminants occurring on hydrophilic contact lenses and may modify the lens optical properties. The silicone-hydrogel contact lenses usually adsorb a lower amount of proteins than the conventional hydrogel ones. However it is important to study the influence of protein deposits on some silicone-hydrogel contact lenses properties, such as UV-Visible transmittance. In this study it is measured de UV-Visible properties of new and worn silicone-hydrogel contact lenses and the transmittance changes that can occur with wear are quantified. An optical fiber spectrometer has been used for measuring the transmittance of contact lenses. This spectrometer has the advantage that the lens can be positioned horizontally and the light beam passes through it perpendicularly. For the measurements, it was necessary to make a special cuvette to put inside the lens and keep it submerged in sterile saline solution. The contact lenses used were Biofinity®. They are manufactured by CooperVision with a material whose technical name is Comfilcon A. This material has not yet been analyzed for this purpose. Moreover, in this type of studies are commonly taken lenses of power -3.00D, however we have not limited to a single power value but we have extended the range to lower and higher values regarding to the standard power in order to see how this parameter affects.
Typically 4-f systems are considered as the basis for holographic memory setups. However, other geometries, such as the
convergent correlator, may also be considered. This is a setup widely used in optical processing architectures but not so
much explored in holographic data storage systems. It provides some benefits when used in optical processing such as
flexibility in the adjustment between Fourier filter dimensions and the Fourier transform of the scene. It also allows a
wider freedom in the choice of the optical systems (lenses) used in the setup since it is no longer necessary that their
focal lengths match, and the total length of the setup may be shortened. In this paper we make use of Fourier optics
techniques to analyze the validity and possible benefits of this setup in its application to holographic memories. We
consider the recording and the reconstruction steps. Both analytical expressions and simulated results are given.
Holographic reflection gratings were stored in a PVA/AA based photopolymer material using symmetrical geometry.
Diffraction efficiency of the gratings was measured and a curing process was applied in the gratings to fix them. The
aim of this paper is to analyze the stability of stored gratings with over time, after to apply the curing process,
comparing the results obtained with and without curing.
Holographic data storage is a new optical technology which allows storing an important number of bits in a recording
material. In this work, two different types of modulations, defocused binary intensity modulation and phase modulation,
are compared to obtain which modulation could be the most suitable for holographic data storage. The best modulation
would be the modulation with a homogeneous distribution of energy in the FT plane with no zero frequency peak.
The photopolymers with a hydrophilic matrix as poly(vinyl alcohol), PVA, are versatile holographic recording materials
in hologram recording experiments. They use water as solvent and they can be made in layers with several thickness.
One of the photopolymers more used is composed of acrylamide as polymerizable monomer, PVA and water as binder.
The pair: triethanolamine, TEA, and the dye yellowish eosin, YE, is widely used as initiator system due to its high
sensitivity and efficiency. TEA is the radical initiator more used with dyes derived from fluorescein as YE because they
can generate a radical by redox reaction under dye excitation by light. The dye is bleached in this process because is
decomposed in the photoinitiation reaction. The ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid EDTA has a molecular structure very
similar to TEA and therefore could replace it in this kind of photopolymers.
The 4,4' azo-bis-(4-cyanopentanoic acid), ACPA, is a radical initiator that is soluble in water and usually used in
polymerizations in solution with thermal initiation. In this work, we use EDTA and ACPA in order to check their
properties as radical initiator in the photochemical reaction that takes place inside the photopolymer while a hologram is
being recorded. We will compare the results obtained with those derived from TEA and will evaluate the possibilities for
these substances.
The performance of a holographic data storage system depends to a great extent on the quality and the physical
properties of the recording medium. The storage capabilities of photopolymer materials are under constant study and for
some applications a high spatial frequency material is necessary. In this work, we focus on the study of the influence of
4,4´-Azobis(4-cyanopentanoic acid) ACPA on holographic reflection gratings recorded in a polyvinyl
alcohol/acrylamide-based photopolymer with the aim of recording reflection gratings with a spatial frequency of up to
5000 lines/mm. The experimental procedure used to examine the high spatial frequency response of this material is
explained and the experimental results presented.
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are widely used as spatial light modulators (SLMs) in many applications (optical signal
processing, holographic data storage, diffractive optics...). In particular, as an alternative microoptics recording scheme
we have explored the possibility to use a LCD to display the diffractive optical element (DOE) to be recorded onto a
photosensitive phase material, so as to enhance the flexibility of the recording architecture. In this application the LCD
acts as an amplitude dynamic transparency. By means of an optical system we image the function addressed to the LCD
onto the recording material. The element to be recorded onto the phase material can be easily changed simply by
changing the function addressed to the LCD. Among the recording materials, photopolymers provide very attractive
capabilities. They present a great flexibility in their composition, the recording layer can be manufactured in a wide
range of possible thicknesses, and they are inexpensive. These properties make it an interesting material to generate the
phase DOEs. Both the composition and the thickness need to be optimized for the application to DOEs. In this work we
explore the results dealing with the calibration of the recording setup and the photopolymer material. We also analyse the
performance of phase-only diffractive lenses generated onto the photopolymer. Promising results have been obtained,
where the focalization of the diffractive lenses generated has been demonstrated.
Polyvinyl/acrylamide (PVA/AA) photopolymers are often used as holographic recording materials. Depending on each
particular application, different spatial frequencies can be recorded. The only limitation appears when high spatial
frequencies are stored (over 2500 lines/mm the diffraction efficiencies achieved are very low). This cut-off spatial
frequency is due to the finite size of polymer chains. On the other hand, in the case of very low spatial frequencies,
monomer diffusion times are highly increased and so there are important distortions in the shape of the gratings stored.
In order to characterize the hologram formation in these types of materials, many parameters must be taken into account.
One of the most important parameters to measure is the diffusion of the molecules inside the layer. In this sense, when
very low spatial frequencies are recorded, component diffusion and thickness variations can be determined more
accurately. In previous works, we have characterized the photopolymer at the zero spatial frequency limit, where
diffusion does not take place, measuring the refractive index variations and the shrinkage. In this work we have recorded
different long period gratings (at very low spatial frequencies diffusion starts to be important) and we have analyzed the
profiles formed in the material during exposure and the refractive index distributions. This study has been carried out
measuring the transmission and reflection orders of diffractive gratings. Furthermore, to obtain a deeper insight into the
profile of the gratings recorded and especially into the sharpness of their edges, we have obtained numerically the
diffraction-efficiency values fitting a Fermi-Dirac function to each profile.
In holographic recording photopolymers the diffraction efficiency develops according to Kogelnik
expression during hologram recording stage. In the ideal situation, the curve of diffraction efficiency
versus energetic exposure has a linear zone, although it is usual to find examples of deviations to this
behavior. In this investigation we study different cases in which there are deviations to ideal behavior,
proposing different hypothesis in order to explain the situations that can be experimentally obtained.
The more important deviation experimentally observed is when the first maximum is lower than the
second one in the diffraction efficiency versus exposure curve during recording. A main hypothesis is
presented, which is related to the dye concentration into the layer and the molecular weight of the
polymer chains generated in the polymerization process.
High spatial-frequency fringes associated with reflection HOEs are difficult to obtain with currently available recording
materials. In this work holographic reflection gratings were stored in a PVA/acrylamide photopolymer. This material is
formed of acrylamide photopolymer which is considered interesting material for optical storage applications such as
holographic memories. The experimental procedure for examining the high spatial frequency response of this material is
explained and the experimental results obtained are presented. With the aim of obtaining the best results, the
performance of different material compositions is compared.
Holographic data storage is a new optical technology which allows an important number of bits to be stored in a
recording material. In this work, holographic data pages were stored in a PVA/acrylamide photopolymer layer using a
peristrophic multiplexing method. This material is formed of acrylamide photopolymers, which are considered
interesting materials for recording holographic memories. A liquid crystal (LCD) device was used to modify the object
beam and store the data pages in the material. This LCD was used to modulate the object beam in order to reduce the
zero frequency of the Fourier Transform (FT) of the object. The scheme used to reduce this frequency was hybrid
ternary modulation (HTM).
Liquid Crystal on Silicon (LCoS) displays can be very useful in numerous optical applications due to some technical
features of these devices, like the large fill factor and resolution. Here, we have developed a study related to the
performance of the LCoS displays. It has been demonstrated that the LCoS display produces certain amount of
depolarized light and the Mueller-Stokes formalism has been required for a full polarimetric characterization. In a
previous paper we obtained the experimental Mueller matrix of the LCoS display as a function of the addressed gray
level, at the very small angle of 2 degrees between the incident beam and the LCoS display normal, and for the
wavelength of 633 nm. In the present paper we extend this study to different angles of incidence in order to analyze the
influence of this parameter on the performance of the LCoS display. We also analyze the influence of the angle of
incidence on the degree of polarization of the reflected beam. A comparison between the obtained results is presented in
this paper.
Recently, we have proposed the application of interferometric techniques, both in transmission and in reflection, to
characterize in real-time the modulation performance of the photopolymers. In this work we use this approach to
characterize the optical modulation properties of a polyvinyl alcohol/acrylamide (PVA/AA) photopolymer. A double
beam interferometer is constructed, both in transmission and in reflection, in combination with the setup to expose the
recording material. Some benefits are provided by this approach: direct calculation of the properties of the material is
possible, index and surface modulation can be decoupled, and additional information can be obtained since the results are
not influenced by diffusion processes. With this scheme we mainly characterize the properties at very low spatial
frequencies, which can be useful to analyze the applicability of holographic recording materials in another range of
applications, such as recording of diffractive optical elements (DOEs). Comparison with the conventional holographic
characterization shows significant differences.
Photopolymers are light sensitive materials with adequate characteristics for application as holographic recording media in new devices as optical elements and holographic memories. A specific set of parameters are required from the photopolymers: good energetic sensitivity to save energy during the recording process, an adequate spectral sensitivity, a higher resolution to let the necessary fidelity in the stored information reproduction, a better environmental compatibility including low toxicity, easy making management and good recycling properties. We present the main research lines in this area and the last results obtained with the new photopolymeric materials that we are developing.
Holographic data pages were multiplexed in a PVA/acrylamide photopolymer layer. This material is formed of
acrylamide photopolymers which are considered interesting materials for recording holographic memories. A liquid
crystal device was used to modify the object beam and store the data pages in the material. Objects with different pixel
size have been used to simulate the data pages. A peristrophic multiplexing method is used to store a large number of
data pages in the same spot in the material. The Bit Error Rate (BER) was calculated fitting the histograms of the
images to determine the quality of the images.
Holographic data pages were stored in a PVA/acrylamide photopolymer. This material is formed of acrylamide photopolymers which are considered interesting materials for recording holographic memories. A liquid crystal device was used to modify the object beam and store the data pages in the material. During the storage process, some parameters like exposure time, beam ratio and intensity were controlled to obtain high quality images after the reconstruction process. The bit error rate was calculated to determine what parameters improve the quality of the image.
We present the characterization and the optimization of the phase and amplitude modulation of a liquid crystal display
(LCD) applied to holographic data storage. We discuss the main LCD modulation regimes demanded in the literature in
the application to holographic memories: binary amplitude, binary phase and hybrid ternary modulation (HTM). We
show how to obtain optimally these modulation regimes with a LCD. In our strategy it is essential the accuracy
demonstrated by the model we use to describe the modulation properties of the LCD. This accuracy allows for a reliable
computer search of the configurations enabling for an optimum LCD complex amplitude modulation. Results are given
for the calibration of a commercial LCD. Optimum configurations close to the ideal for each of the modulation regimes
are also obtained and the values of the various parameters characterizing the quality of these configurations are provided.
We have also analyzed the performance of these configurations to perform the Fourier transform (FT) of a binary data
page. We see that the optimum configurations obtained for the binary phase and the HTM regimes produce a
homogeneous distribution of the energy in the Fourier plane with no DC peak.
We propose the use of low cost alphanumeric liquid crystal displays (LCD) not only as an educational tool, to introduce
students the insights of the electrooptic performance of liquid crystals, but also as a device able to be used in research to
validate models describing the performance of LCDs and to be used in applications requiring monopixel optical
modulation. High resolution LCDs have usually focused the research attention because of their capabilities to be used as
SLMs. However low cost LCDs with a low number of pixels and directly addressed, such as segmented alphanumeric
displays, may also be appealing devices. We show the characterization of one of the segments. The model applied had
previously been demonstrated with high resolution LCDs, which are thin LCDs. The segmented LCD is found to be a
thick LCD, thus, allowing us to verify the validity of the model in another range of conditions. Furthermore, we show
that low cost alphanumeric LCDs can be used as monopixel LCDs. This is interesting since there are a number of
applications, as in polarimetry or in interferometry, where monopixel LCDs may proof necessary. We optimize the
modulation of the LCD both in the transmissive and in the reflective geometry to obtain amplitude-only and phase-only
modulations which are useful for a number of applications.
The acrylamide photolymers are considered interesting materials for holographic media. They have high diffraction efficiency (ratio of the intensities of the diffracted and the incident beams), an intermediate energetic sensitivity among other materials and post-processing steps are not necessary, therefore the media is not altered. The layers of these materials, about 1 mm thick, are a suitable media for recording many diffraction gratings in the same volume of photopolymer using peristrophic multiplexing technique, with great practical importance in the field of holographic memories type WORM (write once read many). In this work we study the recording of diffraction gratings by peristrophic multiplexing with axis of rotation perpendicular to the recording media. The photopolymer is composed of acrylamide as the polymerizable monomer, triethanolamine as radical generator, yellowish eosin as sensitizer and a binder of polyvinyl alcohol. We analyze the holographic behaviour of the material during recording and reconstruction of diffraction gratings using a continuous Nd:YAG laser (532 nm) at an intensity of 5 mW/cm2 as recording laser. The response of the material is monitored after recording with an He-Ne laser. We study the recording process of unslanted diffraction gratings of 1125 lines/mm. The diffraction efficiency of each hologram is seen to decrease as the number of holograms recorded increases, due to consumption of the available dynamic range, in a constant exposure scheduling. It can be seen that the photopolymer works well with high energy levels, without excessive dispersion of light by noise gratings. In order to homogenize the diffraction efficiency of each hologram we use the method proposed by Pu. This method is designed to share all or part of the avaliable dynamic range of the recording material among the holograms to be multiplexed. Using exposure schedules derived from this method we have used 3 scheduling recordings from the
algorithm used. Additionaly, we use an exponential scheduling recording in order to correct the exposure times from the first iteration of the algorithm.
The characterization of the behavior of photopolymers is an important fact in order to control the holographic memories
based on photopolymers. In recent years many 2-dimensional models have been proposed for the analysis of
photopolymers. These models suppose that the photopolymer layer is homogeneous in depth and good agreement
between theoretical simulations and experimental results has been obtained for layers thinner than 200 μm. The
attenuation of the light inside the material by Beer's law is an important factor when higher thickness are considered. In
this work we use a Finite-Difference method to solve the 3 dimensional problem. Now diffusion in depth direction and
the attenuation of the light inside the material by Beer's law are also considered, the influence of the diffusivity of
material in the attenuation of the refractive index profile in depth is analyzed.
A peristrophic multiplexing method is used to store various diffraction gratings at the same spot in the material. This material is formed of acrylamide photopolymers which are considered interesting materials for recording holographic memories. They have high diffraction efficiency (ratio between diffracted and incident beams), high energetic sensitivity and optical quality, and developing processes are not necessary. In this work, the photopolymer is composed of acrylamide (AA) as the polymerizable monomer, triethanolamine (TEA) as radical generator, N,N′methylene-bis-acrylamide (BMA) as crosslinker, yellowish eosin (YE) as sensitizer and a binder of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). The
layers of material obtained are approximately 1 mm thick. Using holographic recording schedules, the exposure energy each hologram should receive in order to achieve uniform diffraction efficiency is optimized. The purpose of these recording schedules is to enable full advantage to be taken of the whole dynamic range of the material and to share it between the individual holograms. The Scheduled Exposure Method (SEM) and the Incremental Exposure Method (IEM) are the two multiplexing schedules used to determine the recording times. Having determined these times, the results obtained with both methods are compared to ascertain which method enables the greatest number of holograms to be recorded with the highest, most uniform diffraction efficiencies.
KEYWORDS: Chemical elements, Manufacturing, Optimization (mathematics), Head, Lead, Interfaces, Computing systems, Roads, Information fusion, Process control
The concept behind improved enterprise resource planning systems (ERP) systems is the overall integration of the whole enterprise functionality into the management systems through financial links. Converting current software into real management decision tools requires crucial changes in the current approach to ERP systems. This evolution must be able to incorporate the technological achievements both properly and in time. The exploitation phase of plants needs an open web-based environment for collaborative business-engineering with on-line schedulers. Today's short lifecycles of products and processes require sharp and finely tuned management actions that must be guided by scheduling tools. Additionally, such actions must be able to keep track of money movements related to supply chain events. Thus, the necessary outputs require financial-production integration at the scheduling level as proposed in the new approach of enterprise management systems (ERM). Within this framework, the economical analysis of the due date policy and its optimization become essential to manage dynamically realistic and optimal delivery dates with price-time trade-off during the marketing activities. In this work we propose a scheduling tool with web-based interface conducted by autonomous agents when precise economic information relative to plant and business actions and their effects are provided. It aims to attain a better arrangement of the marketing and production events in order to face the bid/bargain process during e-commerce. Additionally, management systems require real time execution and an efficient transaction-oriented approach capable to dynamically adopt realistic and optimal actions to support marketing management. To this end the TicTacToe algorithm provides sequence optimization with acceptable tolerances in realistic time.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.