Health monitoring of civil structures is a process that aims at diagnosing and localizing structural damages. It
is typically conducted by visual inspections, therefore relying vastly on the monitoring frequency and individual
judgement of the inspectors. The automation of the monitoring process would be greatly beneficial by increasing
life expectancy of civil structures via timely maintenance, thus improving their sustainability. In this paper, we
present a sensing method for automatically localizing strain over large surfaces. The sensor consists of several
soft capacitors arranged in a matrix form, which can be applied over large areas. Local strains are converted
into changes in capacitance among a soft capacitors matrix, permitting damage localization. The proposed
sensing method has the fundamental advantage of being inexpensive to apply over large-scale surfaces. which
allows local monitoring over large regions, analogous to a biological skin. In addition, its installation is simple,
necessitating only limited surface preparation and deployable utilizing off-the-shelf epoxy. Here, we demonstrate
the performance of the sensor at measuring static and dynamic strain, and discuss preliminary results from
an application on a bridge located in Ames, IA. Results show that the proposed sensor is a promising health
monitoring method for diagnosing and localizing strain on a large-scale surface.
Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) can be optimized by modifying the dielectric or mechanical properties
of the electroactive polymer. In this work both properties were improved simultaneously by a simple process,
the one-step film formation. The silicone elastomer network contains polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) chains, as
well as crosslinker and grafted molecular dipoles in varying amounts. This leads to films, which are homogenous
down to the molecular level. Films with higher permittivity and reduced stiffness were obtained. As matrix
two PDMS-materials with different molar masses, leading to other network chain lengths, were compared. This
directly influences the network density and thus the mechanical properties. A higher electrical field response for
long chain matrix materials was found. The actuation sensitivities for both materials were enhanced by 6.3 and
4.6 times for the short and long chain matrix material, respectively.
Since organic laser materials offer broad optical gain spectra they are predestined for the realization of widely
tunable laser sources. Here we report on a compact organic laser device that allows for voltage controlled
continuously wavelength tuning in the visible range of the spectrum by external deformation. The device
consists of an elastomeric distributed feedback (DFB) laser and an electro-active elastomer actuator also
known as artificial muscle. Second order DFB lasing is realized by a grating line structured elastomer
substrate covered with a thin layer of dye doped polymer. To enable wavelength tuning the elastomer laser is
placed at the center of the electro-active elastomer actuator. Chosen design of the actuator gives rise to
homogeneous compression at this position. The voltage induced deformation of the artificial muscle is
transferred to the elastomer laser and results in a decrease of grating period. This leads to an emission
wavelength shift of the elastomer laser. The increase of actuation voltage to 3.25 kV decreased the emission
wavelength from 604 nm to 557 nm, a change of 47 nm or 7.8%.
Silicone elastomers are highly suitable for application in the field of dielectric elastomer actuators (DEA) due
to their unique material properties (e.g. low glass temperature, thermal stability, large capability of chemical
tailoring). The elastomer forming Polydimethysiloxane (PDMS) employed for this study consists of chains
with vinyl termination and is cross linked via hydrosilylation to a cross linking molecule in the presence of
platinum catalyst. Here, dipole molecules (N-Allyl-N-methyl-4-nitroaniline) were specifically synthesized such
that they could chemically graft to the silicone network. The most prominent advantage of this approach is the
achievement of a homogeneous distribution of dipoles in the PDMS matrix and a suppression of phase separation
due to the grafting to the junction points of the rubber network. Several films with dipole contents ν ranging
from 0 %wt up to 10.9 %wt were prepared. The films were investigated to determine their mechanical (tensile
testing), dielectric (dielectric relaxation spectroscopy) and electrical (electrical breakdown) properties. This new
approach for composites on the molecular level leads to homogeneous films with enhanced material properties for
DEA applications. An increase in permittivity from 3.3 to 6.0, a decrease in electrical breakdown from 130 V/μm
to 50 V/μm and a lowering of the mechanical stiffness from 1700 kPa to 300 kPa was observed.
Dielectric elastomer actuators are soft electro-mechanical transducers with possible uses in robotic, orthopaedic and
automotive applications. The active material must be soft and have a high ability to store electrical energy. Hence, three
properties of the elastic medium in a dielectric elastomer actuator affect the actuation properties directly: dielectric
constant, electric breakdown strength, and mechanical stiffness. The dielectric constant of a given elastomer can be
improved by mixing it with other components with a higher dielectric constant, which can be classified as insulating or
conducting. In this paper, an overview of all approaches proposed so far for dielectric constant improvement in these soft
materials will be provided.
Insulating particles such as TiO2 nanoparticles can raise the dielectric constant, but may also lead to stiffening of the
composite, such that the overall actuation is lowered. It is shown here how a chemical coating of the TiO2 nanoparticles
leads to verifiable improvements. Conducting material can also lead to improvements, as has been shown in several
cases. Simple percolation, relying on the random distribution of conducting nanoparticles, commonly leads to drastic
lowering of the breakdown strength. On the other hand, conducting polymer can also be employed, as has been
demonstrated. We show here how an approach based on a specific chemical reaction between the conducting polymer
and the elastomer network molecules solves the problem of premature breakdown which is otherwise typically found.
Electrical breakdown due to electro-mechanical instability is the main intrinsic failure mechanism of dielectric
elastomer actuators (DEA). The same mechanism may also be responsible for failure in soft insulating materials
for other high voltage applications. We report on the validation of a model determining the electrical breakdown
in dependence of material properties. The model includes hyper-elastic material behavior and includes a proper
description of the experimental boundary condition.
An innovative approach for voltage-tunable optical gratings based on dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) using electro active polymers is presented. Sinusoidal surface gratings, holographically written into azobenzene containing films, are transferred via nanoimprinting to DEAs of different carrier materials. We demonstrate that the surface relief deformation depends on the mechanical and geometrical properties of the actuators. The tested DEAs were made using commercially available elastomers, including a tri-block copolymer poly-styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS), a silicone polydimethylsiloxane rubber (PDMS) and commonly used polyacrylic glue. The polyacrylic glue is ready to use, whereas the SEBS and the PDMS precursors have to be processed into thin films via different casting methods. The DEA material was pre-stretched, fixed to a stiff frame and coated with stretchable electrodes in appropriate designs. Since the actuation strain of the DEA depends strongly upon the conditions such as material properties, pre-stretch and geometry, the desired voltage-controllable deformations can be optimized during manufacturing of the DEA and also in the choice of materials in the grating transfer process. A full characterization of the grating deformation includes measurements of the grating pitch and depth modulation, plus the change of the diffraction angle and efficiency. The structural surface distortion was characterized by measuring the shape of the transmitted and diffracted laser beam with a beam profiling system while applying an electro-mechanical stress to the grating. Such surface distortions may lead to decreasing diffraction efficiency and lower beam quality. With properly chosen manufacturing parameters, we found a period shift of up to 9 % in a grating with 1 μm pitch. To describe the optical behavior, a model based on independently measured material parameters is presented.
Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEA) of poly-styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) and commonly used VHB4910
tape were studied for voltage tunable optical transmission gratings. A new geometry is proposed, in which the grating is
placed in an area without electrodes, permitting for light transmission through the device. Experiments were performed
to implement surface relief gratings on DEA films from pattern masters made from holographic recorded gratings. Since
the actuation strain of the DEA depends strongly on the boundary conditions, the desired voltage-controllable
deformation of the grating can be achieved by choosing suitable manufacturing parameters. Conditions were found
permitting a shift of up to 9 % in a 1 μm grating. A model based on independently measured material parameters is
shown to describe the optical behavior.
Dielectric elastomer actuators deform due to voltage-induced Maxwell-stress, which interacts with the mechanical
properties of the material. Such actuators are considered for many potential applications where high actuation strain and
moderate energy density comparable to biological muscle are required. However, the high voltage commonly required to
drive them is a limitation, especially for biomedical applications. The high driving voltage can be lowered by developing
materials with increased permittivity, while leaving the mechanical properties unaffected. Here, an approach to lowering
the driving voltage is presented, which relies on a grafted nano-composite, in which conducting nanoparticles are
integrated directly into a flexible matrix by chemical grafting. The conducting particles are π-conjugated soft
macromolecules, which are grafted chemically to a polymer matrix flexible backbone. Dielectric spectroscopy, tensile
mechanical analysis, and electrical breakdown strength tests were performed to fully characterize the electro-mechanical
properties. Planar actuators were prepared from the resulting composites and actuation properties were tested in two
different modes: constant force and constant strain. With this approach, it was found that the mechanical properties of the
composites were mostly unaffected by the amount of nanoparticles, while the permittivity was seen to increase from 2.0
to 15, before percolation made further concentration increases impossible. Hence, it could be demonstrated that the socalled
"optimum load" was independent from the permittivity (as expected), while the operating voltage could be
lowered, or higher strains could be observed at the same voltage.
We present electro-mechanical characterizations of dielectric elastomer actuators (DEA) prepared from polystyrene-
ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) with comparison to the commonly used VHB 4905 tape. This study
discusses effects of boundary conditions, stiffness and voltage ramp rate on the actuation properties of both
materials. Measurements on samples in pure-shear configuration were made with variation in both load and
applied voltage, to achieve so-called '3D-plots'. A strong dependence of the actuation characteristics on the
voltage ramp rate was observed, leading to a large shift in the 'optimum load' for VHB, which was not found for
SEBS. This is due to the large difference in visco-elastic behavior between materials.
We discuss various approaches to increasing the dielectric constant of elastomer materials, for use in dielectric elastomer
actuators. High permittivity metal-oxide nano-particles can show elevated impact compared to larger size particles, but
suffer from water uptake. Composites with conducting particles lead to extremely high permittivity caused by
percolation, but they often suffer early breakdown. We present experiments on approaches combining metal-oxides and
metal particles, which compensate for the drawbacks, and may lead to useful DEA materials in which all relevant
properties are technologically useful. The key seems to be to avoid percolation and achieve a constant nearest-neighbor
separation.
Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEA) are a class of eletro-active polymers with promising
properties for a number of applications, however, such actuators are prone to failure. One
of the leading failure mechanisms is the electrical breakdown. It is already well-known that
the electro-mechanical actuation properties of DEA are strongly influenced by the mechanical
properties of the elastomer and compliant electrodes. It was recently suggested that also the
electrical breakdown in such soft materials is influenced by the mechanical properties of the
elastomer. Here, we present stress-strain measurements obtained on two tri-block thermoplastic
elastomers (SEBS 500040 and SEBS 500120, poly-styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene), with
resulting large differences in mechanical properties, and compare them to measurements on
the commonly used VHB 4910. Materials were prepared by either direct heat-pressing of the
raw material, or by dissolving in toluene, centrifuging and drop-casting. Experiments showed
that materials prepared with identical processing steps showed a difference in stiffness of about
20%, where centrifuged and drop-casted films were seen to be softer than heat-pressed films.
Electric breakdown measurements showed that for identically processed materials, the stiffness
seemed to be a strong indicator of the electrical breakdown strength. It was therefore found that
processing leads to differences in both stiffness and electrical breakdown strength. However,
unexpectedly, the softer drop-cast films had a much higher breakdown strength than the heatpressed
films. We attribute this effect to impurities still present in the heat-pressed films, since
these were not purified by centrifuging.
A large number of actuator geometries are known for dielectric elastomer actuators. It is known that pre-strain has a beneficial effect on the actuation output properties of dielectric elastomer actuators, though actuators without pre-strain have also been realized and proven to be of value. We would like to present a new concept for design of dielectric elastomer actuators which draws on conclusions from approaches both with and without a pre-straining frame. With this concept, a large number of new actuator geometries can be visualized, and easily prepared.
Dielectric elastomer actuators performance depends on their construction and the way they are driven. We describe the governing equations for the dynamic performance of actuators and show examples of their use. Both the properties of the base elastomer material and the compliant electrodes influence the actuators performance. The mechanical and electrical properties of elastomers are discussed with a focus on an acrylate pressure sensitive adhesive from 3M, which is used by a number of groups. The influence of these properties on the actuator properties is analyzed.
Elastomer films sandwiched between compliant electrodes work as electrostatic actuators when a large electric field is applied over the electrodes. We have analyzed the mechanical and electrical response of actuators to a sinusoidal varying driving voltage. The actuator acts as a capacitor in the electric circuit, but due to very high strains, the capacitance changes during a work cycle. The extension of the actuator is electrostrictive in response, hence it depends on the square of the applied field and oscillates with twice the driving frequency. The response is non-linear. This change in dimension is coupled back into the electric circuit through the capacitance of the film and the current oscillates with the first, third and odd higher-order harmonics. Due to this coupling, measurements of the current allows one to determine the expansion of the actuator, and hence to control the actuator.
Dielectric elastomer actuators, based on the field-induced deformation of elastomeric polymers with compliant electrodes, can produce a large strain response, combined with a fast response time and high electromechanical efficiency. This unique performance, combined with other factors such as low cost, suggests many potential applications, a wide range of which are under investigation. Applications that effectively exploit the properties of dielectric elastomers include artificial muscle actuators for robots; low-cost, lightweight linear actuators; solid- state optical devices; diaphragm actuators for pumps and smart skins; acoustic actuators; and rotary motors. Issues that may ultimately determine the success or failure of the actuation technology for specific applications include the durability of the actuator, the performance of the actuator under load, operating voltage and power requirements, and electronic driving circuitry, to name a few.
Polyacrylate dielectric elastomers have yielded extremely large strain and elastic energy density suggesting that they are useful for many actuator applications. A thorough understanding of the physics underlying the mechanism of the observed response to an electric field can help develop improved actuators. The response is believed to be due to Maxwell stress, a second order dependence of the stress upon applied electric field. Based on this supposition, an equation relating the applied voltage to the measured force from an actuator was derived. Experimental data fit with the expected behavior, though there are discrepancies. Further analysis suggests that these arise mostly from imperfect manufacture of the actuators, though there is a small contribution from an explicitly electrostrictive behavior of the acrylic adhesive. Measurements of the dielectric constant of stretched polymer reveal that the dielectric constant drops, when the polymer is strained, indicating the existence of a small electrostrictive effect. Finally, measurements of the electric breakdown field were made. These also show a dependence upon the strain. In the unstrained state the breakdown field is 20 MV/m, which grows to 218MV/m at 500% x 500% strain. This large increase could prove to be of importance in actuator design.
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