Wavefront shaping could enable focusing light deep inside scattering media, increasing the depth and resolution of imaging techniques like optical microscopy and optical coherence tomography. However, factors like rapid decorrelation times due to microscale motion and thermal variation make focusing on living tissue difficult. A way to ease the requirements could be exploiting prior information provided by memory effects. For example, this might allow partially or wholly scanning a focus. To study this and related ideas, a computational model was developed to simulate the generation and correlations of foci formed by WFS in scattering media. Predictions of the angular memory range were consistent with experimental observations. Furthermore, correlations observed between optical phase maps required to focus on different positions suggested correlation-based priors might enable accelerated focusing. This work could pave the way to faster optical focusing and thus deeper imaging in living tissue.
Photoacoustic Tomography (PAT) systems based on Fabry-Perot (FP) sensors provide high-resolution images limited by the system’s sensitivity. The sensitivity is limited by the optical Q-factor of the FP cavity (i.e., the optical confinement of the interrogation laser beam in the FP cavity). In existing systems, a focused Gaussian beam is used to interrogate the sensor. While providing a small acoustic element required for high-resolution imaging, this interrogation beam naturally diverges inside the FP cavity, leading to the current sensitivity limit. To break this limit, a new approach of interrogating the FP sensor using a Bessel beam is investigated. The Noise Equivalent Pressure (NEP) and both axial and lateral PAT resolutions using Bessel beam interrogation were quantified. Bessel beam interrogation provided lower NEP, similar axial resolution, but lower lateral resolution. Thus, Bessel beam might be an alternative interrogation scheme for deep PAT imaging as high sensitivity is needed and the lateral resolution is limited by the aperture of the PAT system.
Miniaturising ultrasonic field mapping systems could lead to novel endoscopes capable of photoacoustic tomography and other techniques. However, developing high-resolution arrays of sensitive, sub-millimetre scale ultrasound sensors presents a challenge for traditional piezoelectric transducers. To address this challenge, we conceived an ultrasonic detection concept in which an optical ultrasonic sensor array is read out using a laser beam scanned through a 0.24 mm diameter multimode optical fibre using optical wavefront shaping. We demonstrate this system enables ultrasonic field mapping with ⪆2500 measurement points, paving the way to developing miniaturized photoacoustic endoscopes and other ultrasonic systems based on the presented concept.
We couple the T-matrix method with a discrete particle representation of turbid media to simulate the focusing light through a highly scattering titanium dioxide phantom. We have used our method to simulate wavefront shaping with full phase modulation using a stepwise sequential algorithm, and have generated multiple foci and compared their enhancement against theory. Our computationally efficient, yet physically realistic technique, allows researchers to resolve both amplitude and phase information at arbitrary locations inside and outside bespoke scattering media.
Deep tissue applications (>1 cm) for photoacoustic imaging are limited for traditional Fabry-Perot (FP) ultrasound transducers interrogated by tightly focused Gaussian beams due to beam walk-off, but are in principle feasible for plano-concave optical microresonator (PCMR) sensors. However, in practice, making PCMR sensors with sufficiently high sensitivity is challenging. We explore several approaches to maximise sensitivity and overcome the limitations associated with using high-Q PCMR sensors. The results show an improvement in the sensitivity and the minimum detectable pressure, enabling an increase of the penetration depth in tomographic photoacoustic imaging.
Fabry-Perot (FP) ultrasound sensors are widely used for Photoacoustic Tomography (PAT), affording high resolution (<100 μm) images, with a penetration depth of about 1 cm, limited by system's sensitivity. The sensitivity is, in turn, limited by the shape of the Gaussian beam typically used to interrogate the FP sensor, which is not well "confined" inside the FP cavity. To overcome this limitation, a novel PAT system employing Bessel beam to interrogate the FP sensor was prototyped. Unlike Gaussian beams, Bessel beams are well confined in the FP cavity, increasing the system's sensitivity by multiple orders of magnitude, paving the way to multi-centimetre clinical PAT imaging with high resolution
Photoacoustic (PA) wavefront shaping (WS; PAWS) could allow focusing light deep in biological tissue. This could enable increasing the penetration depth of biomedical optical techniques including PA imaging. However, focussing at depth requires a light source of long coherence length (CL), presenting a challenge because the CLs of typical PA excitation lasers are short. To address this challenge, we developed a PAWS system based on an externally modulated external cavity laser with a long CL. The system was demonstrated by focussing light through rigid scattering media using both PAWS and optical WS. PAWS enabled focussing through diffusers with 8 × enhancements, while all-optical WS enabled focussing through various scattering media including a 5.8 mm thick tissue phantom. By enabling PAWS with increased coherence, the system could facilitate exploring the practical depth limits of PAWS, paving the way to focussing light deep in tissue.
Photoacoustic (PA) wavefront shaping (WFS; PAWS) could allow focusing light deep in living tissue, increasing the penetration depth of biomedical optics techniques. PAWS experiments have demonstrated focusing light through rigid scattering media. However, focusing deep in tissue is significantly more challenging. To examine the scale of this challenge, a computational model of the propagation of coherent light in tissue was developed to simulate the focusing of light via PAWS. To demonstrate the model, it was used to simulate focusing in an 800 µm thick tissue-like medium. To show the utility of the model, the focusing was repeated in different conditions illustrative of simplified PAWS experiments involving different spatial resolutions. As expected, a finer spatial resolution led to a brighter focus. By providing a simulation platform for studying PAWS, this work could pave the way to developing systems that can focus light in tissue.
The impact of optical absorption in the spacer layer of Fabry-Pérot (FP) ultrasound sensors is discussed. It is shown that absorption significantly limits the sensitivity of planoconcave microresonators (PCMRs; FP type sensors with a planoconcave geometry). Using materials of lower absorption or selecting sensor interrogation wavelengths to avoid absorption peaks in existing spacer materials could provide at least an order of magnitude higher sensitivity, paving the way to multi-cm deep-tissue PA imaging applications.
There has been considerable interest in extending photoacoustic imaging techniques to endoscopic devices, which would enable a diverse range of applications, e.g. assessment of coronary artery disease or surgical guidance.
However, the difficulty of miniaturising traditional piezoelectric sensors has mostly prevented tomography-mode endoscopic imaging, where an array of sensors is used to reconstruct the full ultrasound field to centimeter-scale depths.
In this work we demonstrate how wavefront shaping through multimode fibres onto a Fabry-Perot optical ultrasound sensor can overcome this limitation, producing an endoscopic imaging system with a footprint an order of magnitude smaller than the state of the art.
Deep tissue applications (>1 cm) for photoacoustic imaging are currently limited for traditional Fabry-Pérot ultrasound transducers interrogated by tightly focused Gaussian beams due to beam walk-off. We investigate the optical confinement of the beam using plano-concave microresonators with a model based on the ABCD formalism and the use of high-sensitive and high-density multi-element arrays. The results show an improvement in the sensitivity enabling an increase of the penetration depth in tomographic photoacoustic imaging.
Fabry-Pérot (FP) polymer film sensors are used as ultrasound sensors for Photoacoustic (PA) imaging. Optical models predict that FP sensors should have higher sensitivity than observed experimentally. The models assume FP sensors to be optically flat whereas in practice the polymer film spacer exhibits a degree of surface roughness. To understand the impact of the roughness, an optical model of rough FP sensors was developed. Theoretical results show that roughness can reduce the optical sensitivity by a factor of two. The model will help to guide the design of FP sensors to optimize their sensitivity and, therefore, the imaging depth.
We present Jolab: an open source package for performing full-wave simulation of light propagation in optical systems. Jolab enables a very broad range or researchers, engineers and practitioners to simulate light propagation through complex optical systems. Jolab takes a relatively simple script as its input in which the optical system is defined and light is propagated by each optical components sequentially using built-in functions. Jolab scripts are simple and readable and their structure is designed to mimic the design of optical systems making it easy to learn. We will present a range of examples including time-domain simulations and wavefront-shaping experiments.
The manufacturing process of high sensitivity planar Fabry-Pérot (FP) sensors for Photoacoustic (PA) imaging is very challenging and typically results in non-uniformities of the cavity thickness. The non-uniformities leads to an angular tilt between the two mirrors forming the FP sensor. Based on a full wave model, we study the impact of this tilt which reveals a strong dependence between optical sensitivity and degree of tilt. As an example, an angular tilt as small as 0.1 mrad can reduce the sensitivity by 75%. To achieve high sensitivity FP sensors, high mirror reflectivities are required which in turn increases the impact of the non-uniformities in the cavity thickness. Therefore, the optimal design of the sensors is dependent on the manufacturing precision.
Fabry-Pérot etalon-based ultrasound detectors are typically interrogated with a focused Gaussian beam in order to achieve a desired acoustic element size. However, tightly focused Gaussian beams lead to beam ‘walk-off’ within the etalon cavity which reduces sensitivity. In previous work, the planar geometry of the Fabry-Pérot etalon has been replaced by a curved geometry matched to the interrogation beam geometry, thus preventing walk-off. In this work we instead propose using propagation invariant Bessel beams, thus matching the beam geometry to that of the planar etalon geometry, to reduce beam walk-off and increase sensitivity. Increased sensitivity may extend the imaging depth of Fabry-Pérot ultrasound detection systems and may thus enable photoacoustic imaging to access a range of deep tissue imaging applications.
The Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) is widely used in photoacoustic imaging (PAI) as an ultrasound (US) sensor due to its high sensitivity to weak US waves. Such high sensitivity is important as it allows for increasing the depth in tissue at which PAI can access, thus strongly influencing its clinical applicability. FPI sensitivity is impacted by many factors including the FPI mirror reflectivity, focussed beam spot size, FPI cavity thickness and aberrations introduced by the optical readout system. Improving FPI sensitivity requires a mathematical model of its optical response which takes all of these factors into account. Previous attempts to construct such a model have been critically limited by unrealistic assumptions. In this work we have developed a general model of FPI optical readout which based upon electromagnetic theory. By making very few assumptions, the model is able to replicate experimental results and allows insight to be gained into the operating principles of the sensor.
Polymer film Fabry-Perot (FP) sensors are commonly used to detect ultrasound for Photoacoustic (PA) imaging providing high resolution 3D images. Such high image quality is possible due to their low Noise Equivalent Pressure (NEP) because of their broadband response and small acoustic element size. The acoustic element size is small (<100 μm) as defined, to first approximation, by the spot size of the focused interrogation beam. However, it has been difficult until now to gain an accurate intuitive understanding of the working principle of FP sensors interrogated with a focused beam. To overcome this limitation a highly realistic rigorous model of the FP sensor’s optical response has used to establish a new intuitive understanding. The origin of fringe depth reduction and asymmetry associated with the FP sensors optical response is explained using the model developed.
The planar Fabry-Pérot (FP) sensor provides high quality photoacoustic (PA) images but beam walk-off limits sensitivity and thus penetration depth to ≈1 cm. Planoconcave microresonator sensors eliminate beam walk-off enabling sensitivity to be increased by an order-of-magnitude whilst retaining the highly favourable frequency response and directional characteristics of the FP sensor. The first tomographic PA images obtained in a tissue-realistic phantom using the new sensors are described. These show that the microresonator sensors provide near identical image quality as the planar FP sensor but with significantly greater penetration depth (e.g. 2-3cm) due to their higher sensitivity. This offers the prospect of whole body small animal imaging and clinical imaging to depths previously unattainable using the FP planar sensor.
Most photoacoustic scanners use piezoelectric detectors but these have two key limitations. Firstly, they are optically opaque, inhibiting backward mode operation. Secondly, it is difficult to achieve adequate detection sensitivity with the small element sizes needed to provide near-omnidirectional response as required for tomographic imaging. Planar Fabry-Perot (FP) ultrasound sensing etalons can overcome both of these limitations and have proved extremely effective for superficial (<1cm) imaging applications. To achieve small element sizes (<100μm), the etalon is illuminated with a focused laser beam. However, this has the disadvantage that beam walk-off due to the divergence of the beam fundamentally limits the etalon finesse and thus sensitivity - in essence, the problem is one of insufficient optical confinement. To overcome this, novel planoconcave micro-resonator sensors have been fabricated using precision ink-jet printed polymer domes with curvatures matching that of the laser wavefront. By providing near-perfect beam confinement, we show that it is possible to approach the maximum theoretical limit for finesse (f) imposed by the etalon mirror reflectivities (e.g. f=400 for R=99.2% in contrast to a typical planar sensor value of f<50). This yields an order of magnitude increase in sensitivity over a planar FP sensor with the same acoustic bandwidth. Furthermore by eliminating beam walk-off, viable sensors can be made with significantly greater thickness than planar FP sensors. This provides an additional sensitivity gain for deep tissue imaging applications such as breast imaging where detection bandwidths in the low MHz can be tolerated. For example, for a 250 μm thick planoconcave sensor with a -3dB bandwidth of 5MHz, the measured NEP was 4 Pa. This NEP is comparable to that provided by mm scale piezoelectric detectors used for breast imaging applications but with more uniform frequency response characteristics and an order-of-magnitude smaller element size. Following previous proof-of-concept work, several important advances towards practical application have been made. A family of sensors with bandwidths ranging from 3MHz to 20MHz have been fabricated and characterised. A novel interrogation scheme based on rapid wavelength sweeping has been implemented in order to avoid previously encountered instability problems due to self-heating. Finally, a prototype microresonator based photoacoustic scanner has been developed and applied to the problem of deep-tissue (>1cm) photoacoustic imaging in vivo. Imaging results for second generation microresonator sensors (with R = 99.5% and thickness up to ~800um) are compared to the best achievable with the planar FP sensors and piezoelectric receivers.
KEYWORDS: Lymphatic system, Photoacoustic imaging, Cancer, Photoacoustic spectroscopy, Absorption, Visualization, Sensors, 3D image processing, Magnetic resonance imaging, Signal to noise ratio
Lymph nodes play a central role in metastatic cancer spread and are a key clinical assessment target. Abnormal node vascularization, morphology, and size may be indicative of disease but can be difficult to visualize with sufficient accuracy using existing clinical imaging modalities. To explore the potential utility of photoacoustic imaging for the assessment of lymph nodes, images of ex vivo samples were obtained at multiple wavelengths using a high-resolution three-dimensional photoacoustic scanner. These images showed that hemoglobin based contrast reveals nodal vasculature and lipid-based contrast reveals the exterior node size, shape, and boundary integrity. These two sources of complementary contrast may allow indirect observation of cancer, suggesting a future role for photoacoustic imaging as a tool for the clinical assessment of lymph nodes.
Plano-convex optical microresonator detectors have been developed as an alternative to planar Fabry-Pérot (FP) sensors used in all-optical photoacoustic imaging systems with the potential to provide two or more orders-of-magnitude higher detection sensitivity. This study further characterises the performance of these detectors by investigating their normal incidence frequency response and frequency-dependent directivity. It is shown that sensors with thicknesses in the range ~50-320μm provide broadband, smooth frequency response characteristics and low directional sensitivity. This suggests that a photoacoustic imaging system based on microresonator detectors may be capable of imaging with similar performance to the FP system but with significantly higher sensitivity, paving the way to deep tissue imaging applications such as the clinical assessment of breast cancer and preclinical whole body small animal imaging.
Practical imaging constraints restrict the number of wavelengths that can be measured in a single Biolumines- cence Tomography imaging session, but it is unclear which set of measurement wavelengths is optimal, in the sense of providing the most information about the bioluminescent source. Mutual Information was used to integrate knowledge of the type of bioluminescent source likely to be present, the optical properties of tissue and physics of light propagation, and the noise characteristics of the imaging system, in order to quantify the information contained in measurements at different sets of wavelengths. The approach was applied to a two-dimensional sim- ulation of Bioluminescence Tomography imaging of a mouse, and the results indicate that different wavelengths and sets of wavelengths contain different amounts of information. When imaging at a single wavelength, 580nm was found to be optimal, and when imaging at two wavelengths, 570nm and 580nm were found to be optimal. Examination of the dispersion of the posterior distributions for single wavelengths suggests that information regarding the location of the centre of the bioluminescence distribution is relatively independent of wavelength, whilst information regarding the width of the bioluminescence distribution is relatively wavelength specific.
We show how a random matrix can be used to reduce the dimensionality of the bioluminescence tomography reconstruction problem. A randomised low-rank approximation for the sensitivity matrix is computed, and we show how this can be used to reconstruct the bioluminescence source distribution on a randomised basis for the mesh nodes. The distribution on the original mesh can be found easily via a simple matrix multiplication. The majority of the computation required can be performed in advance of the reconstruction, and the reconstruction time itself is of the order milliseconds. This could allow for high frame rate real-time reconstructions to be performed.
A study is presented that demonstrates that bioluminescence tomography can reconstruct accurate 3D images of internal light sources placed at a range of depths within a physical phantom and that it provides more reliable quantitative data than standard bioluminescence imaging. Specifically, it is shown that when imaging sources at depths ranging from 5 to 15mm, estimates of total source strength are stable to within ±11% using tomography whilst values deduced by traditional methods vary 10-fold. Additionally, the tomographic approach correctly localises sources to within 1.5mm error in all cases considered.
KEYWORDS: Imaging systems, Mirrors, Data modeling, Finite element methods, Sensors, 3D modeling, Animal model studies, Bioluminescence, Optical properties, Tomography
Steps are presented towards the development of a new bioluminescence tomography (BLT) imaging system for
in vivo small animal studies. A 2-mirror-based multi-view data collection scheme is investigated in conjunction
with multi-spectral imaging, leading to the production of 3D volumetric maps of molecular source distributions
in simulation and in physical phantom studies by way of a finite element model (FEM) based reconstruction
method. A proof of concept is subsequently demonstrated showing a full work flow from data acquisition to 3D
reconstruction. Results suggest that the multi-view mirror-based approach represents a strong improvement over
standard single-view methods, with improvements of up to 58% in source localisation accuracy being observed
for deep sources.
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