We demonstrate low-light quantitative phase imaging using the transport of intensity equation. The incident numbers of photons are experimentally determined using an optical power meter. Although the low-light phase imaging condition is vulnerable to noise, its application in astronomy and imaging of biological samples draws the attention of researchers. Low light is treated as a Poisson noise. We explore the method as an opportunity to study low-light phase imaging conditions and the possible potential to go toward ultra-low-light conditions. We have illustrated the same with the help of numerical simulation and experimental results.
Haze/fog is a common weather phenomenon that may exist in both day and night conditions and presents loss of contrast in captured images. For an imaging device to capture good quality photographs, it is necessary that the captured scene be well-illuminated. But sometimes due to bad illumination, which may be due to natural or manmade conditions, the captured images present degradation. To solve the ill effects of bad illumination, we propose an image enhancement algorithm that sufficiently deals with both hazy and dark images. By combining dynamic stochastic resonance and a fusion method based on illumination estimation, a local contrast enhancement of the image as seen in the fused image is achieved in the first stage. While images that are only dark are sufficiently illuminated, the effect of haze in day/night hazy images remains unchanged. In the second stage, we solve this issue by modifying the atmospheric degradation model to reduce the effect of haze. The proposed method does not rely on the estimation of atmospheric light; rather, a mean preserving algorithm to restore the mean brightness of the image has been applied. The qualitative and quantitative experiments validate the efficacy and robustness of the proposed method.
Transport of intensity equation (TIE) is a non-interferometric and non-iterative quantitative phase imaging technique that utilizes multiple intensity recordings along the propagation direction. Apart from many advantages, it has some experimental and numerical challenges as well. The experimental challenge is the requirement of multiple intensity recordings which prohibit TIE for real-time imaging of dynamic samples. The numerical challenge is to work with boundary conditions in post-processing analysis. It is required because phase information is to be retrieved after solving second order partial differential equation relating the intensity derivative with phase. In recent years, we have worked on solving the experimental challenges such as alleviating the need of multiple intensity recordings along-with some applications of TIE.
The presence of haze degrades the quality of a captured image. The aerosols in the atmosphere cause scattering of the incident light, and this phenomenon is observed on the captured image as well, where some regions appear grayish and colors in those regions appear faded. To improve the quality of the hazy images, we propose a joint fusion and restoration model that sufficiently enhances the contrast of the hazy image while preserving its mean brightness. The fusion model utilizes images of various exposures generated by a modified Gamma correction model. The images for fusion are selected using some selection criteria and fused in a multi-resolution decomposition scheme. Three haze-sensitive weight maps corresponding to some statistical property of haze namely, saliency, illumination, and luminance gradient are constructed. The hazy image formation model is then used and dehazing is performed based on the dark channel prior assumption. The proposed algorithm does not consider the estimation of airlight vector which seldom cause over-saturation defect, instead a mean brightness preservation model has been applied. The variety of experiments demonstrate the significance of the proposed method.
Optical information security techniques are developed at a fast pace over the past two decades. In the present scenario, where enormous amount of data is being exchanged, information security plays an important role in protecting the information/data from unauthorized use/access. In this context, securing information using optical means has become relevant, given the suitable features of speed and multiple degrees of freedom that optical cryptosystems offer. Asymmetric cryptosystems have been introduced as an upgrade over the conventional double random phase encoding technique and they show resistance towards the known-plaintext attack. This paper reviews the symmetric and asymmetric cryptosystems and their attack analysis.
Optical techniques have been widely studied for securing and validating information, which is one of the most important challenges of the present time. In this work, we study simultaneous authentication of multiple input encrypted images which have been multiplexed in a single plane. The interference-based encryption architecture is used to generate two phase masks for each distinct image, which would serve as the phase lock and the phase key. The phases are made sparse by randomly retaining few pixels of the phase values. The phase locks corresponding to different images are then multiplexed in a single plane. For authenticating the phase masks, the concept of nonlinear correlation has been applied, which offer better correlation peaks than the conventional joint transform correlators. The proposed idea aims to achieve simultaneous encryption and authentication of multiple images and overcomes the constraints of storage issue.
We propose an image encryption scheme that brings into play a technique using a triplet of functions to manipulate complex-valued functions. Optical cryptosystems using this method are an easier approach toward the ciphertext generation that avoids the use of holographic setup to record phase. The features of this method were shown in the context of double random phase encoding and phase-truncated Fourier transform-based cryptosystems using gyrator transform. In the first step, the complex function is split into two matrices. These matrices are separated, so they contain the real and imaginary parts. In the next step, these two matrices and a random distribution function are acted upon by one of the functions in the triplet. During decryption, the other two functions in the triplet help us retrieve the complex-valued function. The simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed idea. To check the robustness of the proposed scheme, attack analyses were carried out.
In this paper, we implement a novel optical information processing tool termed as gyrator wavelet transform for the
application of double image encryption using amplitude- and phase-truncation approach. This approach enhances the key
space in an asymmetric cryptosystem by adding supplementary security layers, i.e., family of mother wavelet and the
gyrator transform order. Double input images bonded with random phase masks are independently gyrator transformed.
Amplitude truncation of obtained spectrum generates individual and universal keys while phase truncation generates two
real-valued functions. Each of the retrieved amplitude function is discrete wavelet transformed, which results into four
different frequency bands. We have fused the obtained wavelet spectrum of an individual image by again gyrator
transforming them following amplitude- and phase truncation. The obtained real-valued functions corresponding to each
image are bonded to form the encrypted image. After using the correct universal key, individual asymmetric key, type of
wavelet, and correct gyrator transform order, the original images are retrieved successfully. Numerical simulation results
prove that the proposed scheme is more flexible and effective than existing wavelet fusion schemes.
It is believed that asymmetric cryptosystem based on phase-truncated Fourier transform has immunity against knownplaintext
attack. However, generation of two asymmetric keys is possible, if plaintext-ciphertext pair is known. In this
paper, we show that amplitude- and phase-truncation-based asymmetric cryptosystem is vulnerable to known-plaintext
attack. The decryption keys are generated with the help of modified Gerchberg-Saxton phase retrieval algorithm from
known-plaintext and cipher-text. The first key is generated from known-plaintext and the second key is generated from
the cipher-text. With the help of the generated keys, the encrypted image in one domain is decrypted successfully in
another domain. The domains used for this study are Fourier, Fresnel, fractional Fourier or gyrator domain. The
vulnerability is proved through the results of computer simulation.
We propose an asymmetric image encryption and decryption scheme based on phase-truncated Fourier transform and
polarization encoding. An image bonded with a random phase mask is Fourier transformed and the obtained spectrum is
amplitude- and phase-truncated. The phase-truncated value is encrypted using the polarized light in which two
independent optical plane waves are used. The first plane wave illuminates the input image and is encoded into a given
state of polarization. The second plane wave illuminates an intensity key image and is encoded into another state of
polarization. Thus obtained two waves are mixed to obtain first level of encryption. The resultant is then passed through
a linear polarizer (pixilated polarizer), to obtain the second level of encryption. For decryption, encrypted image is
passed through the pixilated polarizer rotated at appropriate angles. Finally, decrypted image is obtained by computing
inverse Fourier transform of retrieved phase-truncated value bonded with amplitude-truncated value. The proposed
method offers flexibility in the encryption key design. We also checked immunity against special attack if polarization
keys are unknown. Due to amplitude- and phase-truncation process the designed keys are asymmetric in nature. Results
of numerical simulation are presented in support of the encryption scheme.
We propose a novel multiple image encryption based on fractional Fourier transform (FRT) and known-plaintext attack
with modified Gerchberg-Saxton (G-S) phase retrieval algorithm. Multiple images to be encrypted are encoded into
corresponding phase-only masks (POMs) using modified G-S algorithm. These POMs are multiplexed into a single
POM, which may be referred to as a general key. The individual keys can be generated with the help of all the POMs.
Now a random intensity image is encrypted using double phase encoding in which POM and random phase masks
(RPM) are used as keys. For decryption, with the concept of known-plaintext attack using intensity image and RPM as
keys, the POM is obtained. With this POM, the original images can be retrieved by using individual keys, and correct
orders of FRT. We present simulation results with four different gray-scale images. Numerical simulation results support
the proposed idea of the multiple image encryption.
Most of the reported optical techniques of encryption in literature belong to the category of symmetric cryptosystems, in which the keys used for encryption are identical to the decryption keys. In an environment of network security, a symmetric cryptosystem would suffer from problems in key distribution, management, and delivery. In this paper, we present the results of an asymmetric cryptosystem that uses fractional Fourier transform domain amplitude- and phase- truncation approach. The input image/data used are gray-scale and color patterns. The conventional random phase masks are replaced with structured phase masks to further enhance the key size and hence security of cryptosystem. The scheme also uses the concept of interference and polarization selective diffractive optical element. Cryptanalysis has been carried out considering various types of attacks using phase retrieval algorithm. Numerical simulation results have been presented.
Collision is a phenomenon in which two distinct inputs produce an identical output, so if an attacker finds the encryption keys in such a way that when it is applied to an encrypted image, it produces an arbitrary image instead of original one. We propose collision in an asymmetric cryptosystem based on a phase-truncated Fresnel transform. For encryption, instead of using conventional random-phase masks, structured phase masks with desired construction parameters are used. The decryption keys are generated using the amplitude and phase truncation. An attacker generates an arbitrary (collision) image from the encrypted image using a modified Gerchberg-Saxton phase retrieval algorithm. Two different users, authorized and unauthorized user (attacker), can claim the retrieved image as the original data. The authorized user uses the correct decryption keys and retrieves the original image, while an unauthorized user uses the generated keys and retrieves the collision image. In order to verify the authenticity of the retrieved data, a joint transform correlator is used. A sharp auto-correlation peak is obtained when an image retrieved by authorized user is matched with the encrypted image. However, cross-correlation is obtained when an encrypted image is matched with the collision image. Results of computer simulation support the idea of the proposed collision.
In this paper, a hierarchical encrypted image watermarking technique based on a fractional domain random phase encoding method is proposed. Multiple watermarks encrypted at multiple levels are multiplexed in the fractional Fourier domain and added into a host image. The watermarks are encrypted by the conventional fractional Fourier domain double random phase encoding scheme. The proposed method offers extra security. The invisible watermark is recovered by applying correct random phase masks along with the correct fractional orders. The metric peak signal-to-noise ratio is used to evaluate the visual quality of the watermarked image. To check the robustness of the proposed technique, the effects of image processing operations, such as cropping, mean filtering, median filtering, and noise, are also studied. For watermark authentication, the correlation value is calculated between the original and retrieved watermarks. Simulation results are presented in support of the proposed idea.
Detection of rotationally distorted targets is a challenging task in pattern recognition applications. Recently, we proposed
and implemented a wavelet-modified maximum average correlation height (MACH) filter for in-plane and out-of-plane
rotation invariance in hybrid digital-optical correlator architecture. Use of wavelet transform improved the performance
of the MACH filter by reducing the number of filters required for identifying a rotated target and enhancing the
correlation peak intensity significantly. The output of a hybrid digital-optical correlator contains two autocorrelation
peaks and a strong dc. To capture a desired single autocorrelation peak a chirp function with the wavelet-modified
MACH filter was used. The influence of perturbations in hybrid digital-optical correlator has also been studied.
Perturbations include, the effect of occlusion on input target, the effect of additive and multiplicative noise and their
combined effect on input target, and the effect of occlusion of product function to be optically processed for obtaining
the correlation outputs. The present paper reviews investigations on the hybrid digital-optical correlation scheme with
special reference to the work carried out at the Photonics Division, IRDE Dehradun.
In this paper, we implement a wavelet-modified fringe-adjusted joint transform correlator (JTC) for real-time target recognition applications. In real-time situation the input scene is captured using a CCD/thermal camera. The obtained joint power spectrum is multiplied with a pre-synthesized fringe-adjusted filter and the resultant function is processed with an appropriately scaled wavelet filter. The wavelet-modified fringe-adjusted JTC has been found to yield better results in comparison to the conventional fringe-adjusted JTC. To suppress the undesired strong dc, the resultant function is differentiated. Differential processing the wavelet-modified fringe-adjusted joint power spectrum removes the zero-order spectra and hence improves the detection efficiency. To focus the correlation terms in different planes in order to capture one of the desired autocorrelation peaks and discard the strong dc and another autocorrelation peak, chirp-encoding technique has also been applied. Computer simulation and experimental results are presented.
In this paper, we describe and implement a genetic algorithm based composite wavelet-matched filter for target recognition. The designed filter is invariant to 0-to-360° out-of-plane rotation ranges. The Mexican hat wavelet has been used for the design of the filter. Genetic algorithm has been used to optimize the weight factors for the input matched filters and the different scale wavelets. The designed filter has been implemented in the hybrid digital-optical correlator architecture. Simulation and experimental results in support of the proposed idea are presented.
We implement a binary differential joint-transform correlator for real-time single- and multiple-target recognition applications. In a real-time situation the input scene is captured using a CCD or thermal camera. The obtained joint power spectrum is first differentiated and then binarized. The subset median threshold method was used to get the threshold value for binarization. The binarized joint power spectrum is displayed over a ferroelectric-liquid-crystal spatial light modulator and is Fourier-transformed optically to obtain the correlation peaks. Differential processing of the joint power spectrum removes the zero-order spectra (dc) and hence improves the detection efficiency. Experiments taking single as well as multiple input images have been performed. The parameters for a performance measure have also been calculated. Single and multiple targets with added Gaussian noise have also been used to check the correlation outputs. Computer simulation and experimental results are presented.
We demonstrate a fully phase encryption system that uses digital holography. The input amplitude image to be encrypted is phase encoded, and either its Fourier or Fresnel transform is obtained. Using interference with a wave from a random phase mask, a Fourier or Fresnel hologram (encrypted data) is recorded digitally. The decryption key is also recorded as a digital hologram, called the key hologram. An electronic key is generated and multiplied with the encrypted hologram. A Fourier transform (encrypted image) is then obtained. The decryption key hologram, the electronic key, and the encrypted image can be transmitted through communication channels. The retrieval is carried out by all-digital means.
The performance of a fully phase-based encryption system is analyzed. The encryption is done using a double random fractional Fourier domain random phase encoding technique. The input amplitude data to be encrypted are binary text and a grayscale image of Lena. We study the tolerance to data loss and binarization of the encrypted data/image. The effects of noise perturbations on the encrypted data are also studied. To evaluate the quality of the recovered image, the mean-square error is used as a metric to compare the recovered image with the original input image. Results of computer simulation are presented for analysis.
We propose a new method to encrypt and decrypt a two-dimensional amplitude image, which uses a jigsaw transform and a localized fractional Fourier transform. The jigsaw transform is applied to the original image to be encrypted, and the image is then divided into independent nonoverlapping segments. Each image segment is encrypted using different fractional parameters and two statistically independent random phase codes. The random phase codes, along with the set of fractional orders and jigsaw transform index, form the key to the encrypted data. Results of computer simulation are presented to verify the proposed idea and analyze the performance of the method. We also propose an optical implementation, which may find application for encrypting data stored in holographic memory.
In this paper, we implement a fully phase encrypted memory system using cascaded extended fractional Fourier transform (FRT). We encrypt and decrypt a two-dimensional image obtained from an amplitude image. The fully phase image to be encrypted is fractional Fourier transformed three times and random phase masks are placed in the two intermediate planes. Performing the FRT three times increases the key size, at an added complexity of one more lens. The encrypted image is holographically recorded in a photorefractive crystal and is then decrypted by generating through phase conjugation, conjugate of encrypted image. The decrypted phase image is converted into an amplitude image by using phase contrast technique. A lithium niobate crystal has been used as a phase contrast filter to reconstruct the phase image, alleviating the need of alignment in the Fourier plane, thereby making the system rugged.
Optical information processing techniques offer many advantages for data security applications. Optics offers many degrees of freedom like phase, spatial frequency, and polarization to encode data more securely. Being inherently two-dimensional, optical systems can process and relay two-dimensional information in parallel resulting in higher throughput rate compared to the electronic systems. The above advantages offered by optical information processing systems, coupled with advancements in enabling technologies like photorefractive crystals, spatial light modulators, charge coupled device cameras, and smart pixel technology have led to an increasing use of optoelectronic data processing techniques for security applications. Holographic memories that use photorefractive materials are attractive due to their high-density storage capacity, high-speed access to data, and rewritability. Thus photorefractive materials can be used for secured data storage and retrieval. Encrypted memory can be used in a secure communication network using ultrashort pulses. Encryption of amplitude and phase images, and storage of the subsequent encrypted image in photorefractive material has been achieved by various researchers. The present paper reviews various optical encryption techniques developed by us, based on photorefractive crystals. These techniques include double random encoding, fractional Fourier plane encoding, and fully phase encoding.
The fractional Fourier transform (FRT), which is a generalization of the well-known ordinary Fourier transform, is being increasingly used in many applications of optics. The FRT is richer in theory and more flexible in applications and at the same time not more costly in implementation. Pattern recognition, one of the widely pursued application areas in the domain of optical information processing, has benefited immensely with the use of FRT in optical correlators. Similarly optoelectronic encryption and decryption techniques have derived considerable strength from the use of FRT. The present paper reviews the recent investigations in the above-mentioned areas with special reference to the work carried out by the Photonics Group, ITT Delhi.
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