KEYWORDS: Black bodies, Sensors, Temperature metrology, Hyperspectral imaging, Body temperature, Sulfur, Infrared radiation, Infrared imaging, Head, Gas cells
Defence Research and Development Canada, through a Canadian government innovation support program, has tested the Telops Hyper-Cam Airborne Mini (HCAM) thermal infrared hyperspectral imager to assess its performances, including its Noise Equivalent Spectral Radiance (NESR), its radiometric accuracy and its ability to detect gas-phase targets both in laboratory and in flight. The results are compared to those obtained with the Telops Hyper-Cam LW system.
The atmospheric correction of thermal hyperspectral imagery can be separated in two distinct processes: Atmospheric
Compensation (AC) and Temperature and Emissivity separation (TES). TES requires for input at each pixel, the ground
leaving radiance and the atmospheric downwelling irradiance, which are the outputs of the AC process. The extraction
from imagery of the downwelling irradiance requires assumptions about some of the pixels’ nature, the sensor and the
atmosphere. Another difficulty is that, often the sensor’s spectral response is not well characterized. To deal with this
unknown, we defined a spectral mean operator that is used to filter the ground leaving radiance and a computation of the
downwelling irradiance from MODTRAN. A user will select a number of pixels in the image for which the emissivity is
assumed to be known. The emissivity of these pixels is assumed to be smooth and that the only spectrally fast varying
variable in the downwelling irradiance. Using these assumptions we built an algorithm to estimate the downwelling
irradiance. The algorithm is used on all the selected pixels. The estimated irradiance is the average on the spectral
channels of the resulting computation. The algorithm performs well in simulation and results are shown for errors in the
assumed emissivity and for errors in the atmospheric profiles. The sensor noise influences mainly the required number of
pixels.
A standoff sensor called BioSense was developed to demonstrate the capacity to map, track and classify bioaerosol clouds from a distant range and over wide area. The concept of the system is based on a two steps dynamic surveillance: 1) cloud detection using an infrared (IR) scanning cloud mapper and 2) cloud classification based on a staring ultraviolet (UV) Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) interrogation. The system can be operated either in an automatic surveillance mode or using manual intervention. The automatic surveillance operation includes several steps: mission planning, sensor deployment, background monitoring, surveillance, cloud detection, classification and finally alarm generation based on the classification result. One of the main challenges is the classification step which relies on a spectrally resolved UV LIF signature library. The construction of this library relies currently on in-chamber releases of various materials that are simultaneously characterized with the standoff sensor and referenced with point sensors such as Aerodynamic Particle Sizer® (APS). The system was tested at three different locations in order to evaluate its capacity to operate in diverse types of surroundings and various environmental conditions. The system showed generally good performances even though the troubleshooting of the system was not completed before initiating the Test and Evaluation (T&E) process. The standoff system performances appeared to be highly dependent on the type of challenges, on the climatic conditions and on the period of day. The real-time results combined with the experience acquired during the 2012 T & E allowed to identify future ameliorations and investigation avenues.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Signal detection, Detection and tracking algorithms, Photon counting, Interference (communication), Aerosols, Signal to noise ratio, Signal processing, Databases, Atmospheric modeling
Photon counting technologies are developed and could be used in the future to measure the return from laser induced fluorescence. Currently, the spectral detection of light emitted by fluorescing aerosols is performed with ICCD, Intensified Charge Coupled Device. The signal to noise ratio of ICCD devices is smaller by a factor of √2compared to photon counting devices having the same sensitivity. We studied the impact of this difference of signal to noise ratio on the capability of multivariate detection and classification algorithms to operate on various conditions. Signal simulations have been performed to obtain ROC (Receiver Operation Characteristics) Curves and Confusion Matrix to obtain the detection performance and the ability of algorithms to discriminate a potential source from another. Two detection algorithms are used, the Integrated Laser Induced Fluorescence(ILIF) and the Matched Filter. For the classification, three algorithms are used, the Adaptive Matched Filter (AMF), the Adaptive Coherent Estimator (ACE) and the Adaptive Least Squares (ALS). The best algorithm for detection is the AMF using the signature of the material present in a cloud, the ILIF detector performs very well. For the classification, the three algorithms are surprisingly giving the same results for the same data. The classification performs better if the distance between the signatures recorded in a database is important. The performance of the detector and of the classificator improves with an increase of the signal to noise ratio and is consistently and significantly better for the photon counting compared to ICCD.
Threats associated with bioaerosol weapons have been around for several decades and have been mostly associated with
terrorist activities or rogue nations. Up to the turn of the millennium, defence concepts against such menaces relied
mainly on point or in-situ detection technologies. Over the last 10 years, significant efforts have been deployed by
multiple countries to supplement the limited spatial coverage of a network of one or more point bio-detectors using lidar
technology. The addition of such technology makes it possible to detect within seconds suspect aerosol clouds over area
of several tens of square kilometers and track their trajectories. These additional capabilities are paramount in directing
presumptive ID missions, mapping hazardous areas, establishing efficient counter-measures and supporting subsequent
forensic investigations. In order to develop such capabilities, Defence Research and Development Canada (DRDC) and
the Chemical, Biological, Radiological-Nuclear, and Explosives Research and Technology Initiative (CRTI) have
supported two major demonstrations based on spectrally resolved Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) lidar: BioSense,
aimed at defence military missions in wide open spaces, and SR-BioSpectra, aimed at surveillance of enclosed or semienclosed
wide spaces common to defence and public security missions. This article first reviews briefly the modeling
behind these demonstration concepts. Second, the lidar-adapted and the benchtop bioaerosol LIF chambers (BSL1),
developed to challenge the constructed detection systems and to accelerate the population of the library of spectral LIF
properties of bioaerosols and interferents of interest, will be described. Next, the most recent test and evaluation (T&E)
results obtained with SR-BioSpectra and BioSense are reported. Finally, a brief discussion stating the way ahead for a
complete defence suite is provided.
Airborne hyperspectral ground mapping is being used in an ever-increasing extent for numerous
applications in the military, geology and environmental fields. The different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum help produce information of differing nature. The visible, near-infrared and
short-wave infrared radiation (400 nm to 2.5 μm) has been mostly used to analyze reflected solar light,
while the mid-wave (3 to 5 μm) and long-wave (8 to 12 μm or thermal) infrared senses the self-emission
of molecules directly, enabling the acquisition of data during night time.
The Telops Hyper-Cam is a rugged and compact infrared hyperspectral imager based on the Fourier-transform
technology. It has been used on the ground in several field campaigns, including the
demonstration of standoff chemical agent detection. More recently, the Hyper-Cam has been integrated
into an airplane to provide airborne measurement capabilities. The technology offers fine spectral
resolution (up to 0.25 cm-1) and high accuracy radiometric calibration (better than 1 degree Celsius).
Furthermore, the spectral resolution, spatial resolution, swath width, integration time and sensitivity are
all flexible parameters that can be selected and optimized to best address the specific objectives of each
mission.
The system performance and a few measurements have been presented in previous publications. This
paper focuses on analyzing additional measurements in which detection of fertilizer and Freon gas has
been demonstrated.
Hyperspectral ground mapping is being used in an ever-increasing extent for numerous applications in the military,
geology and environmental fields. The different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum help produce information of
differing nature. The visible, near-infrared and short-wave infrared radiation (400 nm to 2.5 μm) has been mostly used to
analyze reflected solar light, while the mid-wave (3 to 5 μm) and long-wave (8 to 12 μm or thermal) infrared senses the
self-emission of molecules directly, enabling the acquisition of data during night time.
Push-broom dispersive sensors have been typically used for airborne hyperspectral mapping. However, extending the
spectral range towards the mid-wave and long-wave infrared brings performance limitations due to the self emission of
the sensor itself. The Fourier-transform spectrometer technology has been extensively used in the infrared spectral range
due to its high transmittance as well as throughput and multiplex advantages, thereby reducing the sensor self-emission
problem.
Telops has developed the Hyper-Cam, a rugged and compact infrared hyperspectral imager. The Hyper-Cam is based on
the Fourier-transform technology yielding high spectral resolution and enabling high accuracy radiometric calibration. It
provides passive signature measurement capability, with up to 320x256 pixels at spectral resolutions of up to 0.25 cm-1.
The Hyper-Cam has been used on the ground in several field campaigns, including the demonstration of standoff
chemical agent detection. More recently, the Hyper-Cam has been integrated into an airplane to provide airborne
measurement capabilities. A special pointing module was designed to compensate for airplane attitude and forward
motion. To our knowledge, the Hyper-Cam is the first commercial airborne hyperspectral imaging sensor based on
Fourier-transform infrared technology. The first airborne measurements and some preliminary performance criteria for
the Hyper-Cam are presented in this paper.
Hyperspectral ground mapping is being used in an ever-increasing extent for numerous applications in the military,
geology and environmental fields. The different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum help produce information of
differing nature. The visible, near-infrared and short-wave infrared radiation (400 nm to 2.5 μm) has been mostly used to
analyze reflected solar light, while the mid-wave (3 to 5 μm) and long-wave (8 to 12 μm or thermal) infrared senses the
self-emission of molecules directly, enabling the acquisition of data during night time.
Push-broom dispersive sensors have been typically used for airborne hyperspectral mapping. However, extending the
spectral range towards the mid-wave and long-wave infrared brings performance limitations due to the self emission of
the sensor itself. The Fourier-transform spectrometer technology has been extensively used in the infrared spectral range
due to its high transmittance as well as throughput and multiplex advantages, thereby reducing the sensor self-emission
problem.
Telops has developed the Hyper-Cam, a rugged and compact infrared hyperspectral imager. The Hyper-Cam is based on
the Fourier-transform technology yielding high spectral resolution and enabling high accuracy radiometric calibration. It
provides passive signature measurement capability, with up to 320x256 pixels at spectral resolutions of up to 0.25 cm-1.
The Hyper-Cam has been used on the ground in several field campaigns, including the demonstration of standoff
chemical agent detection. More recently, the Hyper-Cam has been integrated into an airplane to provide airborne
measurement capabilities. A special pointing module was designed to compensate for airplane attitude and forward
motion. To our knowledge, the Hyper-Cam is the first commercial airborne hyperspectral imaging sensor based on
Fourier-transform infrared technology. The first airborne measurements and some preliminary performance criteria for
the Hyper-Cam are presented in this paper.
One of today's primary security challenges is the emerging biological threat due to the increased accessibility to
biological warfare technology and the limited efficiency of detection against such menace. At the end of the 90s, Defence
R&D Canada developed a standoff bioaerosol sensor, SINBAHD, based on intensified range-gated spectrometric
detection of Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) with an excitation at 351 nm. This LIDAR system generates specific
spectrally wide fluorescence signals originating from inelastic interactions with complex molecules forming the building
blocks of most bioaerosols. This LIF signal is spectrally collected by a combination of a dispersive element and a range-gated
ICCD that limits the spectral information within a selected atmospheric cell. The system can detect and classify
bioaerosols in real-time, with the help of a data exploitation process based on a least-square fit of the acquired
fluorescence signal by a linear combination of normalized spectral signatures. The detection and classification processes
are hence directly dependant on the accuracy of these signatures to represent the intrinsic fluorescence of bioaerosols and
their discrepancy. Comparisons of spectral signatures acquired at Suffield in 2001 and at Dugway in 2005 of bioaerosol
simulants, Bacillius subtilis var globiggi (BG) and Erwinia herbicola (EH), having different origin, preparation protocol
and/or dissemination modes, has been made and demonstrates the robustness of the obtained spectral signatures in these
particular cases. Specific spectral signatures and their minimum detectable concentrations for different
simulants/interferents obtained at the Joint Biological Standoff Detection System (JBSDS) increment II field
demonstration trial, Dugway Proving Ground (DPG) in June 2005, are also presented.
Near the sea surface, atmospheric refraction and turbulence affect both IR transmission and image quality. This produces an impact on both the detection and classification/identification of targets. With the financial participation of the U.S. Office of Naval Research (ONR), Canada's Defence Research Establishment Valcartier (DREV) is developing PRIME (Propagation Resources In the Maritime Environment), a computer model aimed at describing the overall atmospheric effects on IR imagery systems in the marine surface layer. PRIME can be used as a complement to MODTRAN to compute the effective transmittance in the marine surface layer, taking into account the lens effects caused by refraction. It also provides information on image degradation caused by both refraction and turbulence. This paper reviews the refraction phenomena that take place in the surface layer and discusses their effects on target detection and identification. We then show how PRIME can benefit detection studies and image degradation simulations.
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