Quantitative cephalometry plays an essential role in clinical diagnosis, treatment, and surgery. Development of fully automated techniques for these procedures is important to enable consistently accurate computerized analyses. We study the application of deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for fully automated quantitative cephalometry for the first time. The proposed framework utilizes CNNs for detection of landmarks that describe the anatomy of the depicted patient and yield quantitative estimation of pathologies in the jaws and skull base regions. We use a publicly available cephalometric x-ray image dataset to train CNNs for recognition of landmark appearance patterns. CNNs are trained to output probabilistic estimations of different landmark locations, which are combined using a shape-based model. We evaluate the overall framework on the test set and compare with other proposed techniques. We use the estimated landmark locations to assess anatomically relevant measurements and classify them into different anatomical types. Overall, our results demonstrate high anatomical landmark detection accuracy (∼1% to 2% higher success detection rate for a 2-mm range compared with the top benchmarks in the literature) and high anatomical type classification accuracy (∼76% average classification accuracy for test set). We demonstrate that CNNs, which merely input raw image patches, are promising for accurate quantitative cephalometry.
KEYWORDS: Digital signal processing, Signal processing, Multiplexing, Weapons of mass destruction, Multimode fibers, Single mode fibers, Optical networks, Fiber amplifiers, Refractive index, Matrices
We present the fundamentals of multi-input multi-output (MIMO) signal processing for mode-division multiplexing (MDM) in multi-mode fiber. We review group delay management techniques that minimize adaptation time and complexity in MIMO signal processing. We describe long-period fiber grating (LPFG) devices for introducing strong mode coupling, which represent a promising practical approach for group delay management. We analyze MIMO equalization complexity, adaptation time and throughput efficiency for MDM systems employing LPFG devices.
As the bit rates of routed data streams exceed the throughput of single wavelength-division multiplexing channels, spectral and spatial traffic aggregation become essential for optical network scaling. These aggregation techniques reduce network routing complexity by increasing spectral efficiency to decrease the number of fibers, and by increasing switching granularity to decrease the number of switching components. Spectral aggregation yields a modest decrease in the number of fibers but a substantial decrease in the number of switching components. Spatial aggregation yields a substantial decrease in both the number of fibers and the number of switching components. To quantify routing complexity reduction, we analyze the number of multi-cast and wavelength-selective switches required in a colorless, directionless and contentionless reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer architecture. Traffic aggregation has two potential drawbacks: reduced routing power and increased switching component size.
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