Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is the most widely used additive manufacturing (AM) technique to produce fibre-reinforced polymer matrix composites, due to their low wastage, geometric flexibility and ease of use. Composite materials generally have superior properties such as being stiffer and more robust than conventional materials at a reduced weight leading to their application in a wide variety of sectors (aerospace, automotive etc). However, composites manufactured in this way are highly susceptible to defects such as high void content and poor bond quality at the fibre and matrix interfaces. These defects stop fibre-reinforced composite materials manufactured this way meeting industry standards and being used for structural applications. In the present work, a combination methodology of acoustic emission (AE) alongside tensile testing has been developed to investigate the structural integrity and mechanical performance of AM fibre-reinforced composites. Pure polymer samples and short carbon fibre reinforced composites were manufactured, and their mechanical properties were observed.
Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is the most widely used additive manufacturing (AM) technique to produce fibre-reinforced polymer matrix composites, due to their low wastage, geometric flexibility and ease of use. However, composites manufactured in this way are highly susceptible to defects such as high void content and poor bond quality at the fibre and matrix interfaces. In the present work, a combination method of Infrared Thermography, Acoustic Emission and micro-computerised tomography was developed for the monitoring of the FFF AM process. Both pure plastic and fibre-reinforced composites were manufactured, and the detection and development of defects created during the printing process were monitored. This combination of techniques allows for detection of defects such as porosity, voids and poor fibre-matrix bonding during printing and the verification of their presence after the printing without the need for destructive testing.
In the present work, a novel combination method of in-line monitoring and offline non-destructive evaluation was developed for the detection and monitoring of defects in additively manufactured specimen. The new methodology includes Infrared Thermography, Acoustic Emission and Micro-computerised Tomography to allow for the detection of anomalies during the printing process and the verification of their presence after the printing process without the need for destructive testing. It was found that the in-line monitoring can provide information on the efficacy of the printing process which is substantiated by the offline assessment.
The remarkable mechanical and electrical properties exhibited by carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have encouraged efforts to
develop mass production techniques. As a result, CNTs are becoming increasingly available, and more attention from
both the academic world and industry has focused on the applications of CNTs in bulk quantities. These opportunities
include the use of CNTs as conductive filler in insulating polymer matrices and as reinforcement in structural materials.
The use of composites made from an insulating matrix and highly conductive fillers is becoming more and more
important due to their ability to electromagnetically shield and prevent electrostatic charging of electronic devices. In
recent years, different models have been proposed to explain the formation of the conductive filler network. Moreover,
intrinsic difficulties and unresolved issues related to the incorporation of carbon nanotubes as conductive fillers in an
epoxy matrix and the interpretation of the processing behavior have not yet been resolved. In this sense, a further
challenge is becoming more and more important in composite processing: cure monitoring and optimization. This paper
considers the potential for real-time control of cure cycle and dispersion of a modified epoxy resin system commonly
utilized in aerospace composite parts. It shows how cure cycle and dispersion control may become possible through realtime
in-situ acquisition of dielectric signal from the curing resin, analysis of its main components and identification of the
significant features.
The attainment of structural integrity of the reinforcing matrix in composite materials is of primary importance for the
final properties of the composite structure. The detailed monitoring of the curing process on the other hand is paramount
(i) in defining the optimal conditions for the impregnation of the reinforcement by the matrix (ii) in limiting the effects of
the exotherm produced by the polymerization reaction which create unwanted thermal stresses and (iii) in securing
optimal behavior in matrix controlled properties, such as off axis or shear properties and in general the durability of the
composite. Dielectric curing monitoring is a well known technique for distinguishing between the different stages of the
polymerization of a typical epoxy system. The technique successfully predicts the gelation and the vitrification of the
epoxy and has been extended for the monitoring of prepregs. Recent work has shown that distinct changes in the
properties of the propagated sound in the epoxy which undergoes polymerization is as well directly related to the gelation
and vitrification of the resin, as well as to the attainment of the final properties of the resin system.
In this work, a typical epoxy is simultaneously monitored using acoustic and dielectric methods. The system is
isothermally cured in an oven to avoid effects from the polymerization exotherm. Typical broadband sensors are
employed for the acoustic monitoring, while flat interdigital sensors are employed for the dielectric scans. All stages of
the polymerization process were successfully monitored and the validity of both methods was cross checked and verified.
Composite materials are widely used especially in the aerospace structures and systems. Therefore, inexpensive and
efficient damage identification is crucial for the safe use and function of these structures. In these structures low-velocity
impact is frequently the cause of damage, as it may even be induced during scheduled repair. Flaws caused by lowvelocity
impact are dangerous as they may further develop to extended delaminations. For that purpose an effective
inspection of defects and delaminations is necessary during the service life of the aerospace structures. Within the scope
of this work, an innovative technique is developed based on current stimulating thermography. Electric current is
injected to Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composite and aluminium (Al) plates with concurrent thermographic monitoring.
For reference, both damaged and undamaged plates are inspected. Low-velocity impact damaged composite laminates at
different energy levels are interrogated employing the novel technique. Live and pulse phase infrared thermography is
employed for the identification of low-velocity impact damage at various energy levels while the electric current induces
the transient thermal field in the vicinity of the defect. In all cases conventional ultrasonics (C-scan) were performed for
the validation and assessment of the results of the innovative thermographic method.
Infrared Thermography (IrT) has been shown to be capable of detecting and monitoring service induced damage of
repair composite structures. Full-field imaging, along with portability are the primary benefits of the thermographic
technique. On-line lock-in thermography has been reported to successfully monitor damage propagation or/and stress
concentration in composite coupons, as mechanical stresses in structures induce heat concentration phenomena around
flaws. During mechanical fatigue, cyclic loading plays the role of the heating source and this allows for critical and
subcritical damage identification and monitoring using thermography. The Electrical Potential Change Technique
(EPCT) is a new method for damage identification and monitoring during loading. The measurement of electrical
potential changes at specific points of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRPs) under load are reported to enable the
monitoring of strain or/and damage accumulation. Along with the aforementioned techniques Finally, Acoustic Emission
(AE) method is well known to provide information about the location and type of damage. Damage accumulation due to
cyclic loading imposes differentiation of certain parameters of AE like duration and energy. Within the scope of this
study, infrared thermography is employed along with AE and EPCT methods in order to assess the integrity of bonded
repair patches on composite substrates and to monitor critical and subcritical damage induced by the mechanical loading.
The combined methodologies were effective in identifying damage initiation and propagation of bonded composite
repairs.
The increasing use of composite materials in aerostructures has prompted the development of an effective structural
health monitoring system. A safe and economical way of inspection is needed in order for composite materials to be used
more extensively. Critical defects may be induced during the scheduled repair which may degrade severely the
mechanical properties of the structure. Low velocity impact LVI damage is one of the most dangerous and very difficult
to detect types of structural deterioration as delaminations and flaws are generated and propagated during the life of the
structure. In that sense large areas need to be scanned rapidly and efficiently without removal of the particular
components. For that purpose, an electrical potential mapping was employed for the identification of damage and the
structural degradation of aerospace materials. Electric current was internally injected and the potential difference was
measured in order to identify induced damage in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) structures. The experimental
results of the method were compared with conventional C-scan imaging and evaluated.
Thermographic techniques offer distinct advantages over other techniques usually employed to assess damage
accumulation and propagation. Among the advantages of these techniques are the fully remote-non contact monitoring
and their ability for full field imaging. Due to the transient nature of the heat transfer phenomenon, phase and lock-in
techniques are of particular interest in order to increase the resolution of the signal or provide depth discrimination. Last
but not least, when a structure is subjected to load, these techniques can be used in order to monitor the irreversible
damage phenomena, as manifested by the local heat accumulation in the vicinity of the defect. This eliminates the need
for external heat source, as any cyclic loading can induce the heat gradient necessary to pinpoint the defect accumulation
and propagation.
In the aforementioned context, lock-in thermography has been employed to monitor the delamination propagation in
composites and the critical failure of bonded repairs when the materials are subjected to fatigue loading. Lock-in
thermography proved successful in identifying debonding initiation and propagation as well in depicting the
thermoelastic stress field around purposely induced discontinuities.
The variation of the electrical properties of fiber reinforced polymers when subjected to load offer the ability of strain
and damage monitoring. This is performed via electrical resistance and electrical potential measurements. On the other
hand Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) have proved to be an efficient additive to polymers and matrices of composites with
respect to structural enhancement and improvement of the electrical properties. The induction of CNTs increases the
conductivity of the matrix, transforming it to an antistatic or a conducting phase. The key issue of the structural and
electrical properties optimization is the dispersion quality of the nano-scale in the polymer phase. Well dispersed CNTs
provide an electrical network within the insulating matrix. If the fibers are conductive, the CNT network mediates the
electrical anisotropy and reduces the critical flaw size that is detectable by the change in conductivity. Thus, the network
performs as an inherent sensor in the composite structure, since every invisible crack or delamination is manifested as an
increase in the electrical resistance. The scope of this work is to further exploit the information provided by the electrical
properties with a view to identify strain variation and global damage via bulk resistance measurements. The
aforementioned techniques were employed to monitor, strain and damage in fiber reinforced composite laminates both
with and without conductive nanofillers.
Bonded repair offers significant advantages over mechanically fastened repair schemes as it eliminates
local stress concentrations and seals the interface between the mother structure and the patch.
However, it is particularly difficult to assess the efficiency of the bonded repair as well as its
performance during service loads. Thermography is a particularly attractive technique for the particular
application as it is a non-contact, wide field non destructive method. Phase thermography is also
offering the advantage of depth discrimination in layered structures such as in typical patch repairs particularly in the case where composites are used. Lock-in thermography offers the additional advantage of on line monitoring of the loaded structure and subsequently the real time evolution of any progressive debonding which may lead to critical failure of the patched repair. In this study composite systems (CFRP plates) with artificially introduced defects (PTFE) were manufactured. The aforementioned methods were employed in order to assess the efficiency of the thermographic technique. The obtained results were compared with typical C-scans.
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