In recent decades, GaN and related compounds gained prominence as top semiconductor materials for high-power, high-temperature optoelectronics, electronics, and power conversion. However, better substrate materials are still sought after despite extensive nitride research. Commonly used substrates like sapphire and silicon have high lattice mismatches with GaN, leading to challenges in heteroepitaxial growth.
A promising solution emerged with ScAlMgO4 (SCAM) proposed as a GaN growth substrate. SCAM offers several advantages:
i) Smaller lattice mismatch with GaN than sapphire, reducing dislocation density in grown structures.
ii) Matching thermal expansion coefficient with GaN along the a-axis, reducing residual strain.
iii) Easy cleavage along the c-plane, yielding atomically flat substrates without polishing.
iv) Ability to grow large SCAM crystals via the Chochralski method.
In this study1, we present experimental and theoretical investigations on the optical, electronic, and structural properties of ScAlMgO4. Our experimental techniques include variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry, optical transmission, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and Raman spectrosco
Metamaterials provide unique opportunities for manipulation of dispersion of light waves and, therefore, polarisation and phase, as well as amplitude of transmitted and reflected waves. Here we report on using linear and nonlinear properties of nanorod and nanotube based metamaterials for shaping ultrashort optical pulses. Intensity limiters, temporal pulse shape control, as well as polarisation switching will be presented. The role on nonlocal effects in pulse propagation in metamaterials will be discussed. Using nanotube based metamaterials allows to introduce additional degree of freedom for passive and active tunability of the optical response.
For many years ionic liquids (ILs) have attracted the interest of the scientific community, finding new applications in green chemistry, chemical engineering, environmental science, and others. All applications have emerged due to ILs unique physiochemical properties like negligible volatility, high thermal stability, low toxicity, and very wide range of structural diversity. In our research we develop and exploit all of the advantages associated with the ILs molecules for lithographic patterning, expanding their applications to lithography resists. In this work we present the results of patterning achieved for different types of ionic liquids with vinylbenzyl and trimethoxysilyl groups.
In this work we realize an optical resonator incorporating nematic liquid crystal in which photonic cavity modes are in strong light-matter coupling regime with excitons in a 2D organic-inorganic perovskite layer. Using electric field tunability provided by the liquid crystal we can bring our structure to the regime of Rashba-Dresselhaus spin orbit coupling. By a preparation of the orienting polymer layers within the cavity to break inversion symmetry of the liquid crystal layer we were able to engineer polariton energy band structure exhibiting locally non-zero photonic Berry curvature, which can be tuned by an external electric field.
We report for the first time successful inscription of high reflectivity Bragg grating in nanostructured core active fiber. Nanostructurization of the fiber core allows to separate the active and photosensitive areas and to distribute them all over the core. As a result unfavorable clustering between germanium and ytterbium particles is avoided. The distribution of discrete glass areas with feature size smaller than λ/5 results in effectively continuous refractive index profile of the fiber core. We present a single-mode fiber with built-in Bragg grating for laser application with the core composed of ytterbium and germanium doped silica rods. The core structure is arranged as a regular lattice of 1320 doped with ytterbium and 439 doped with germanium silica glass rods. The average germanium doping level within the core of only 1.1% mol allowed efficient inscription of Bragg grating. The nanostructured core was 8.6 μm and the internal cladding was 112 μm in diameter coated with low index polymer to achieve the double-clad structure. In the first proof-of-concept in the laser setup we achieved 35 % of slope efficiency in relation to launched power for the fiber length of 18 m. The output was single-mode with spectrum width below 1 nm. The maximum output power limited by pumping diode was 2.3 W. The nanostructurization opens new opportunities for development of fibers with a core composed of two or more types of glasses. It allows to control simultaneously the refractive index distribution, the active dopants distribution and photosensitivity distribution in the fiber core.
One of the central goals of the field of nonlinear optics is to bring the control of light to ultrafast time scales using structures that are easily integrated into nano-optic devices. The ability to design the polarization state of a signal light pulse, with a second control light pulse, at THz rates, will allow new techniques to be developed such as ultrafast polarimetry and quantum state manipulation.
Here we all-optically control, with a femtosecond pulse, the anisotropy of a metamaterial to change the polarization state of signal light at a switching rate of 0.3THz, which is found to be closely linked to the electron temperature distribution within the structure and so can be tuned with the control light wavelength. We experimentally measure more than 60° rotation of the polarization orientation of the signal light. This effect is due to an induced phase shift of the extraordinary wave compared to the ordinary wave of the signal light. Polarization control is observed in both transmission and reflection and shown to be general to any anisotropic metamaterial. Considering only the signal light, its leading edge can alter the polarization state of the pulse allowing the pulse’s incident intensity to be encoded in its transmitted polarization state.
In this paper we present a numerical study on the optimization of dispersion of a photonic crystal fiber infiltrated with water-ethanol mixtures. The advantage of such an approach stems from the fact that the dependence of the refractive index on temperature is larger in liquids than in solid materials. Here, we examine photonic crystal fibers with a regular, hexagonal lattice and with various geometrical and material parameters, such as different number of rings of holes, various lattice constants and the size of core and air-holes. Additionally, for the optimized structure with flat dispersion characteristics, we analyze the influence of temperature and concentration of the ethanol solution on the dispersion characteristic and the zero dispersion wavelength shift of the fundamental mode.
We present a numerical study of the dispersion characteristic modification in a nonlinear photonic crystal fibre (PCF) infiltrated with organic solvents. The PCF is made of PBG08 glass and was developed in the stack-and-draw process. The PBG08 glass has a high refractive index (n < 2.0), high nonlinear refractive index (n2 = 4.3×10−19 m2/W) and good rheological properties that allow for thermal processing of the glass without crystallization. In the numerical study 18 different solvents were used. The dispersion, mode area, and losses characteristics were calculated. The zero dispersion wavelength (ZDW) of the fibre can be shifted towards longer wavelengths by approx. 150 nm by using Nitrobenzene as infiltrating liquid and by a smaller value using other liquids. At the same time the mode area of the fundamental mode increases by approx. 5 to 15% depending on the wavelength considered. The confinement losses increase significantly for six analysed liquids by a few orders of magnitude up to 102 dB/m. Our approach allows to combine high nonlinearities of the soft glass with the possibility to tune zero dispersion wavelength to the desired value.
Broadband layered absorbers are analysed theoretically and experimentally. A genetic algorithm is used to opti- mize broadband and wide-angle of incidence metal-dielectric layered absorbers. An approximate representation of the perfectly matched layer with a spatially varied absorption strength is discussed. The PML is realised as a stack of uniform and isotropic metamaterial layers with permittivieties and permeabilities given from the effective medium theory. This approximate representation of PML is based on the effective medium theory and we call it an effective medium PML (EM-PML).1 We compare the re ection properties of the layered absorbers to that of a PML material and demonstrate that after neglecting gain and magnetic properties, the absorber remains functional.
In photovoltaic devices, metal nanoparticles embedded in a semiconductor layer allow the enhancement of solar-toelectric energy conversion efficiency due to enhanced light absorption via a prolonged optical path, enhanced electric fields near the metallic inclusions, direct injection of hot electrons, or local heating. Here we pursue the first two avenues. In the first, light scattered at an angle beyond the critical angle for reflection is coupled into the semiconductor layer and confined within such planar waveguide up to possible exciton generation. In the second, light is trapped by the excitation of localized surface plasmons on metal nanoparticles leading to enhanced near-field plasmon-exciton coupling at the peak of the plasmon resonance. We report on results of a numerical experiment on light absorption in polymer- (fullerene derivative) blends, using the 3D FDTD method, where exact optical parameters of the materials involved are taken from our recent measurements. In simulations we investigate light absorption in randomly distributed metal nanoparticles dispersed in polyazomethine-(fullerene derivative) blends, which serve as active layers in bulkheterojunction polymer solar cells. In the study Ag and Al nanoparticles of different diameters and fill factors are diffused in two air-stable aromatic polyazomethines with different chemical structures (abbreviated S9POF and S15POF) mixed with phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) or [6,6]-phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC71BM). The mixtures are spin coated on a 100 nm thick Al layer deposited on a fused silica substrate. Optical constants of the active layers are taken from spectroscopic ellipsometry and reflectance measurements using a rotating analyzer type ellipsometer with auto-retarder performed in the wavelength range from 225 nm to 2200 nm. The permittivities of Ag and Al particles of diameters from 20 to 60 nm are assumed to be equal to those measured on 100 to 200 nm thick metal films.
We report on measurements of optical, morphological and electrical properties of silver nanolayers. The Ag films of thickness from 10 to 500 nm are deposited in e-beam evaporator. Fused silica and sapphire substrates are used with nominal root-mean-square (RMS) roughness equal 0.3 and 0.2 nm, respectively. Silver is deposited either directly on substrates or on Ge, Ni, or Ti wetting interlayer. The refractive index n and the extinction coefficient κ of Ag films are derived from spectroscopic ellipsometry and reflectance measurements carried in air in the spectral range from 0.6 to 6.5 eV (2200 – 193 nm) using a rotating analyzer ellipsometer (V-VASE, J.A. Woollam Co.). Surface roughness is measured using AFM (Ntegra NT-MDT) under tapping mode in air with sharp etalon probes and 5:1 aspect ratio. Ag layers of 10 and 30 nm thickness have nearly the same RMS roughness when deposited at temperatures from 180 to 350 K. The lowest RMS=0.2 nm is achieved for 10 nm film Ag/Ge evaporated at 295 K. The sheet resistance of the Ag films is measured using two methods: the van der Pauw method with the electrical contacts located on perimeters of the samples and four probes contacting the samples at points lying in a straight line. Specific resistivity of Ag films on fused silica change from <109 to 1.80 [μΩ∙cm] when thickness increases from 10 to 500 nm. Specific resistivity of 10, 30 and 50 nm thick Ag films on 1 nm Ge wetting layer are equal 14.01, 7.89, and 5.58 [μΩ∙cm], respectively, and are about twice higher than those of Ag films on Ti or Ni interlayers.
This research is motivated by our interest in fabrication of plasmonic single metal layer and metal-dielectric multilayer nanolenses with resolution exceeding the diffraction limit. Nanolayers of noble metals are evaporated in an e-beam physical vapour deposition machine on smooth substrates at temperatures controlled in the range 90÷300 K. For dielectric nanolayers ion assisted deposition is used. Thin films of Ag are deposited on polished fused silica and sapphire substrates. To reduce island growth substrate cooling and wetting layers are used. Our aim is to find deposition conditions when influence of thermal expansion mismatch on smoothness of deposited layers can be diminished. Quality of surfaces is assessed using standard deviation of average roughness measured with atomic force microscope for films deposited at different rates and different temperatures.
Propagation of light through layered metamaterials consisting of a metal-dielectric stack may be described as linear spatial filtering. We present the modelling and optimization strategy for engineering such metamaterials, as well as the measurement results of spatial filters consisting of titanium oxide and silver layers evaporated with PVD. Depending on the point spread function, the metamaterial can be applied for subdiffraction spatial filtering or for classical spatial filtering operations. We optimize the metamaterial with respect to the shape of the complex amplitude transfer function, the average transmission coefficient and to average reflections. The shape of the point spread function can only be tailored in a limited degree, due to the limited number of the degrees of freedom contained in the structure, and only in one, planarly or radially oriented dimension. The metamaterial optimised for high-pass filtering consists of several substructures, each of which is an individual cavity, and is optimized by tuning the resonance order of these cavities. In this way we obtain a high transmission for a broad range of spatial frequencies. This metamaterial can be applied to modify the contrast of the object or to introduce a phase-contrast. It may be used for far-field imaging. As an example, we propose to apply it as a novel phase-step visualization photonic element.
KEYWORDS: Silver, Chromium, Near field scanning optical microscopy, Near field, Germanium, Image resolution, Near field optics, Sapphire, Plasmonics, Silica
Interest in plasmonic lenses dates back to the seminal paper of Pendry [Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 3966 (2000)] who has shown that superresolution is possible due to imaging through a negative-refractive-index material. Experimental verifications of near-field to near-field imaging properties of a single Ag nanolayer have proven that a resolution reaching one-sixth of the illumination wavelength is possible. The images have been recorded in a photoresist spin-coated onto an Ag layer. In this paper, images are recorded using a scanning near-field optical microscope (SNOM) working in the transmission mode with tapered-fibre metal-coated probes and aperture diameters <_ 100 nm. This recording method allows for separate recording of monochromatic images from the same lens, here we report on samples illuminated using the 404 nm mercury line. Moreover, with SNOM recording several uses of a single lens are possible. We consider dependence of the resolution on the roughness of the outer surface in the following multilayers: Ag/Ge/sapphire, Cr/sapphire, and Ag/SiO2/Cr/sapphire. Further research on reduction of chromium layer roughness is necessary.
KEYWORDS: Magnetism, Metals, Near field scanning optical microscopy, Dielectrics, Silver, Metamaterials, Aluminum, Solar concentrators, Near field, Coating
In the recent decade metamaterials with magnetic permeability different than unity and unusual response to the magnetic
field of incident light have been intensively explored. Existence of magnetic artificial materials created an interest in a
scanning near-field magnetic microscope for studies of magnetic responses of subwavelength elementary cells of those
metamaterials. We present a method of measuring magnetic responses of such elementary cells within a wide range of
optical frequencies with single probes of two types. The first type probe is made of a tapered silica fiber with radial
metal stripes separated by equidistant slits of constant angular width. The second type probe is similar to metal coated,
corrugated, tapered fiber apertured SNOM probe, but in this case corrugations are radially oriented. Both types of probes
have internal illumination with azimuthally polarized light. In the near-field they concentrate into a subwavelength spot
the longitudinal magnetic field component which is much stronger than the perpendicular electric one.
We characterize the influence of surface roughness on resolution and on the transmission coefficient of double layered
silver-TiO2 superlenses. Rough surfaces are modelled with a Gaussian statistics based on experimental AFM
measurements of e-beam evaporated layers, whereas the rest of the analysis is numerical and is obtained using 2D
FDTD. The roughness of a surface is described with the root-mean-square of its height and with the width of its
autocorrelation function. Our modelling results confirm that surface roughness is a critical limiting factor for both superresolution
and for large transmission efficiency.
We present a method of fabricating aperture tapered-fiber metal-coated SNOM probes with a corrugated core surface
which assures efficient photon-to-plasmon conversion and thus high energy throughput. High energy throughput allows
for a small apex aperture and high resolution. The procedure consists of recording of Bragg grating in the to-be-tapered
part of a Ge-doped silica fiber and chemical etching with the Turner method. Bragg gratings are recorded with UV light
through nearly sinusoidal phase masks of chosen lattice constants. The refractive index contrast in the Bragg grating
differentiates the etch rate of the Ge-doped hydrogenated fiber core in exposed and unexposed parts by about 100
nm/min at room temperature.
We report on simulations of the imaging properties of metal-dielectric layered flat lenses and their tolerance to
experimental inaccuracies of layers thickness and errors of permittivity values of materials. The multilayer structure
consisting of silver and amorphous TiO2 is optimised in terms of the transmission efficiency and FWHM of the point
spread function. Standard deviation of thickness for both metals and dielectrics layers, accepted in simulations, are twice
bigger than actual fabrication parameters determined with quartz crystal microbalance. The errors of material
permittivity measurements are taken from literature. Numerical investigation of imaging properties of the lenses is
performed with the transfer matrix method. The quality of surfaces of silica substrate, titanium oxide, gold, and silver
layers is measured with atomic force microscope.
KEYWORDS: Silver, Point spread functions, Dielectrics, Wave propagation, Polarization, Near field optics, Plasmonics, Diffraction, Super resolution, Metals
We characterise two geometries of silver-dielectric layered or single layer patterned lenses for subwavelength
imaging in the visible spectral range. The first consists of a periodic multilayer operating for the TM polarisation
in a planar geometry, and the other is a grooved structure with rotational symmetry operating for the radial
polarisation. For the multilayer superlens, diffraction-free propagation is conditioned on the phase flatness of the
transfer function. Low-loss, diffraction-free transmission is demonstrated at micrometer distances and compared
to diffractive propagation involving evanescent waves. The silver single layer lens, in turn, has double-sided
grooves and no on-axis aperture. In another version the single layer lens has slits and no on-axis aperture, all
rings and a stop are integrated with a fiber. Both lenses focus a far-field source into a far-field spot. They
perform like a high numerical aperture optical objective and obey the diffraction limit.
We optimize the silver-dielectric layered flat lens in terms of three criteria:the variance of modulation transfer
function (MTF) phase, the absolute values of the MTF phase, and the variance of this part of the phase spectrum
which corresponds to the propagating waves only. All three characterise limited dependence of MTF on the range
of spatial frequencies.
The structure supports the resonant tunnelling of propagating and evanescent waves at distances of several
wavelengths with a high transmission efficiency. Simulations are performed using the transfer matrix method and
verified with the FDTD one. The resolution expressed with FWHM of the point spread function normalized with
respect to wavelength reaches the value as small as 0.12, for the amplitude transmission of 40% and the thickness
of the multilayer equals to 2.4 micrometers. For structures considered, we identify and explain a phenomenon
that resembles focusing at a finite distance from the back plane.
KEYWORDS: Point spread functions, Modulation transfer functions, Silver, Dielectrics, Super resolution, Near field, Image resolution, Multilayers, Wave propagation, Transparency
We identify the conditions of imaging using a metal-dielectric nanolayered superlens within the regime of resonant tunneling that allows for superresolution. Resonant tunneling is a mechanism which leads to effective transparency of metals present in nanolayered stacks. The resonant tunneling operation regime is based on the coupling of incident waves to Bloch waves through the external layers which minimize reflection. This regime enables transmission within a broad spectral range through layered metallic structures with the total thickness reaching several wavelengths. We consider imaging from the near field to the near field and aim at increasing of the lens-image distance. We show that under certain conditions imaging with subwavelength resolution is possible. The present analysis relies on full-wave modeling based the transfer matrix method (TMM) and the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method.
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