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This paper discusses the progress of remote focussing microscopy from a novel imaging technique to a reliable tool in the life sciences. Specifically, we describe recent efforts to achieve the accurate calibration of both distance and orientation within the imaging volume. Using a laser machined fluorescent specimen it is possible to identify, with high sensitivity, small (<1%) depth-dependent magnification changes which are a linear function of axial misalignment of the imaging objective. The sensitivity of the calibration procedure limits distortion to <1 μm over the entire imaging volume. This work finds direct application in identifying the microscopic effects of chronic disease in the living heart.
By remotely focussing a customised two-photon microscope, it is possible to image heart cells at two oblique angles within 200ms. The oblique images uniquely resolve the tissue inclination ambiguity and reduce the variance of SL measures by as much as 23%. This improved precision is crucial in discerning between pathological models of chronic hypertension. As well as improving measurement precision, the distribution of α across the field of view provides additional structural information which can be related to disease morphology. To validate this new imaging protocol, the value ofα calculated from the oblique planes provided the input to a rigid model cell which was used to predict the appearance of the cell in the conventional focal plane. The comparison of the model to the image data provided a confidence metric for our measurements. Finally, by considering the optical transfer function, the range of cell orientations for which the method is valid could be calculated.


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Confocal microscopy is an important tool in a wide variety of fields due to its enhanced imaging properties. It permits the imaging of volume structures in three dimensions. This course provides an understanding of the operation of these instruments. Various aspects of instrument design, imaging modes and image processing are discussed.
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