The direct deposition of piezoelectric thin films on thin substrates offers an appealing technology for the realization of
lightweight adjustable mirrors capable of sub-arcsecond resolution. This solution will make it possible to realize X-ray
telescopes with both large effective area and exceptional angular resolution and, in particular, it will enable the
realization of the adjustable optics for the proposed mission Square Meter Arcsecond Resolution X-ray Telescope
(SMART-X).
In the past years we demonstrated for the first time the possibility of depositing a working piezoelectric thin film (1-5
um) made of lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT) on glass. Here we review the recent progress in film deposition and influence
function characterization and comparison with finite element models. The suitability of the deposited films is analyzed
and some constrains on the piezoelectric film performances are derived. The future steps in the development of the
technology are described.
We describe an X-ray Observatory mission with 0.5” angular resolution, comparable to the Chandra X-ray Observatory, but with 30 times more effective collecting area. The concept is based on developing the new technology of adjustable X-ray optics for ultra thin (0.4 mm), highly nested grazing incidence X-ray mirrors. Simulations to date indicate that the corrections for manufacturing and mounting can be determined on the ground and the effects of gravity release can be calculated to sufficient accuracy, so that all adjustments are applied only once on-orbit, without the need of any on-orbit determination of the required corrections. The mission concept is based on the Chandra Observatory, and takes advantage of the technology studies which have taken place over the past fifteen years developing large area, light weight mirrors.
The next generation of large X-ray telescopes with sub-arcsecond resolution will require very thin, highly nested grazing incidence optics. To correct the low order figure errors resulting from initial manufacture, the mounting process, and the effects of going from 1 g during ground alignment to zero g on-orbit, we plan to adjust the
shapes via piezoelectric “cells” deposited on the backs of the reflecting surfaces. This presentation investigates how well the corrections might be made. We take a benchmark conical glass element, 410×205 mm, with a 20×20 array of piezoelectric cells 19×9 mm in size. We use finite element analysis to calculate the influence function of
each cell. We then simulate the correction via pseudo matrix inversion to calculate the stress to be applied by each cell, considering distortion due to gravity as calculated by finite element analysis, and by putative low order manufacturing distortions described by Legendre polynomials. We describe our algorithm and its performance,
and the implications for the sensitivity of the resulting slope errors to the optimization strategy.
In the half century since the initial discovery of an astronomical (non-solar) x-ray source, the observation time required to achieve a given sensitivity has decreased by eight orders of magnitude. Largely responsible for this dramatic progress has been the refinement of the (grazing-incidence) focusing x-ray telescope, culminating with the exquisite subarcsecond imaging performance of the Chandra X-ray Observatory. The future of x-ray astronomy relies upon the development of x-ray telescopes with larger aperture areas (< 1 m2) and comparable or finer angular resolution (< 1″). Combined with the special requirements of grazing-incidence optics, the mass and envelope constraints of space-borne telescopes render such advances technologically challenging—requiring precision fabrication, alignment, and assembly of large areas (< 200 m2) of lightweight (≈ 1 kg m-2 areal density) mirrors. Achieving precise and stable alignment and figure control may entail active (in-space adjustable) x-ray optics. This paper discusses relevant programmatic and technological issues and summarizes current progress toward active x-ray telescopes.
The proposed SMART-X telescope includes adaptive optics systems that use piezoelectric lead zirconate titanate (PZT) films deposited on flexible glass substrates. Several processing constraints are imposed by current designs: the crystallization temperature must be kept below 550 °C, the total stress in the film must be minimized, and the yield on 1 cm2 actuator elements should be < 90%. For this work, RF magnetron sputtering was used to deposit films since chemical solution deposition (CSD) led to warping of large area flexible glass substrates. A PZT 52/48 film that wasdeposited at 4 mTorr and annealed at 550 °C for 24 hours showed no detectable levels of either PbO or pyrochlore second phases. Large area electrodes (1cm x 1 cm) were deposited on 4” glass substrates. Initially, the yield of the devices was low, however, two methods were employed to increase the yield to near 100 %. The first method included a more rigorous cleaning to improve the continuity of the Pt bottom electrode. The second method was to apply 3 V DC across the capacitor structure to burn out regions of defective PZT. The result of this latter method essentially removed
conducting filaments in the PZT but left the bulk of the material undamaged. By combining these two methods, the yield on the large area electrodes improved from < 10% to nearly 100%.
The GMT-CfA, Carnegie, Catolica, Chicago Large Earth Finder (G-CLEF) is a fiber fed, optical echelle spectrograph
that has undergone conceptual design for consideration as a first light instrument at the Giant Magellan Telescope. GCLEF
has been designed to be a general-purpose echelle spectrograph with precision radial velocity (PRV) capability.
We have defined the performance envelope of G-CLEF to address several of the highest science priorities in the Decadal
Survey1. The spectrograph optical design is an asymmetric, two-arm, white pupil design. The asymmetric white pupil
design is adopted to minimize the size of the refractive camera lenses. The spectrograph beam is nominally 300 mm,
reduced to 200 mm after dispersion by the R4 echelle grating. The peak efficiency of the spectrograph is >35% and the
passband is 3500-9500Å. The spectrograph is primarily fed with three sets of fibers to enable three observing modes:
High-Throughput, Precision-Abundance and PRV. The respective resolving powers of these modes are R~ 25,000,
40,000 and 120,000. We also anticipate having an R~40,000 Multi-object Spectroscopy mode with a multiplex of ~40
fibers. In PRV mode, each of the seven 8.4m GMT primary mirror sub-apertures feeds an individual fiber, which is
scrambled after pupil-slicing. The goal radial velocity precision of G-CLEF is ∂V <10 cm/sec radial. In this paper, we
provide a flowdown from fiducial science programs to design parameters. We discuss the optomechanical, electrical,
structural and thermal design and present a roadmap to first light at the GMT.
We report on technical progress made over the past year developing thin film piezoelectric adjustable grazing
incidence optics. We believe such mirror technology represents a solution to the problem of developing lightweight,
sub-arc second imaging resolution X-ray optics. Such optics will be critical to the development next decade of
astronomical X-ray observatories such as SMART-X, the Square Meter Arc Second Resolution X-ray Telescope.
SMART-X is the logical heir to Chandra, with 30 times the collecting area and Chandra-like imaging resolution,
and will greatly expand the discovery space opened by Chandra’s exquisite imaging resolution.
In this paper we discuss deposition of thin film piezoelectric material on flat glass mirrors. For the first time,
we measured the local figure change produced by energizing a piezo cell – the influence function, and showed it is
in good agreement with finite element modeled predictions. We determined that at least one mirror substrate
material is suitably resistant to piezoelectric deposition processing temperatures, meaning the amplitude of the
deformations introduced is significantly smaller than the adjuster correction dynamic range. Also, using modeled
influence functions and IXO-based mirror figure errors, the residual figure error was predicted post-correction. The
impact of the residual figure error on imaging performance, including any mid-frequency ripple introduced by the
corrections, was modeled. These, and other, results are discussed, as well as future technology development plans.
Future x-ray observatories will require high-resolution (< 1") optics with very-large-aperture (> 25 m2) areas. Even with
the next generation of heavy-lift launch vehicles, launch-mass constraints and aperture-area requirements will limit the
areal density of the grazing-incidence mirrors to about 1 kg/m2 or less. Achieving sub-arcsecond x-ray imaging with
such lightweight mirrors will require excellent mirror surfaces, precise and stable alignment, and exceptional stiffness or
deformation compensation. Attaining and maintaining alignment and figure control will likely involve active (in-space
adjustable) x-ray optics. In contrast with infrared and visible astronomy, active optics for x-ray astronomy is in its
infancy. In the middle of the past decade, two efforts began to advance technologies for adaptive x-ray telescopes: The
Smart X-ray Optics (SXO) Basic Technology project in the United Kingdom (UK) and the Generation-X (Gen-X)
concept studies in the United States (US). This paper discusses relevant technological issues and summarizes progress
toward active x-ray telescopes.
The present generation of X-ray telescopes emphasizes either high image quality (e.g. Chandra with sub-arc
second resolution) or large effective area (e.g. XMM-Newton), while future observatories under consideration
(e.g. Athena, AXSIO) aim to greatly enhance the effective area, while maintaining moderate (~10 arc-seconds)
image quality. To go beyond the limits of present and planned missions, the use of thin adjustable optics for
the control of low-order figure error is needed to obtain the high image quality of precisely figured mirrors along
with the large effective area of thin mirrors. The adjustable mirror prototypes under study at Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observatory are based on two different principles and designs: 1) thin film lead-zirconate-titanate
(PZT) piezoelectric actuators directly deposited on the mirror back surface, with the strain direction parallel
to the glass surface (for sub-arc-second angular resolution and large effective area), and 2) conventional leadmagnesium-
niobate (PMN) electrostrictive actuators with their strain direction perpendicular to the mirror
surface (for 3-5 arc second resolution and moderate effective area). We have built and operated flat test mirrors
of these adjustable optics. We present the comparison between theoretical influence functions as obtained by
finite element analysis and the measured influence functions obtained from the two test configurations.
To extend the effective collecting area for future X-ray astronomy observatories, it is necessary to use highly
nested, very thin glass shells. The capability to adjust the figure of these shells on-orbit is essential in order to
achieve the present X-ray imaging capability, of order 1/2 arcsec resolution, which is provided to astronomers
world-wide by the Chandra X-ray Observatory. We are pursuing concepts to carry out this adjustment using
piezoelectric crystals deposited directly on the back sides of the reflectors, and divided into a pattern of discrete
actuators by individually controlled electrodes. In this paper we carry out a simulation of how well gravity
induced errors might be corrected by this process. We consider a conical glass piece 205 mm axially by 410 mm
azimuthally, and with 1 m radius of curvature. We do a finite element analysis to calculate the influence function
of each of a set of 20 × 20 piezo pixels. Then we apply a 1g force axially, using various constraint conditions,
and calculate the coefficients of the set of influence functions such that the adjusted shape minimizes the slope
errors.
High-energy astrophysics is a relatively young scientific field, made possible by space-borne telescopes. During the
half-century history of x-ray astronomy, the sensitivity of focusing x-ray telescopes-through finer angular resolution
and increased effective area-has improved by a factor of a 100 million. This technological advance has enabled
numerous exciting discoveries and increasingly detailed study of the high-energy universe-including accreting (stellarmass
and super-massive) black holes, accreting and isolated neutron stars, pulsar-wind nebulae, shocked plasma in
supernova remnants, and hot thermal plasma in clusters of galaxies. As the largest structures in the universe, galaxy
clusters constitute a unique laboratory for measuring the gravitational effects of dark matter and of dark energy. Here,
we review the history of high-resolution x-ray telescopes and highlight some of the scientific results enabled by these
telescopes. Next, we describe the planned next-generation x-ray-astronomy facility-the International X-ray
Observatory (IXO). We conclude with an overview of a concept for the next next-generation facility-Generation X.
The scientific objectives of such a mission will require very large areas (about 10000 m2) of highly-nested lightweight
grazing-incidence mirrors with exceptional (about 0.1-arcsecond) angular resolution. Achieving this angular resolution
with lightweight mirrors will likely require on-orbit adjustment of alignment and figure.
Adjustable x-ray optics offer the promise of much higher imaging resolution with lightweight optics,
providing the key technology for the development of the next generation of astronomical x-ray telescopes
such as Generation-X. These adjustable grazing incidence optics might be adjusted only once, on-orbit. To
produce theses optics will require the development of several component technologies along with their
integration into a new mirror concept. In this paper we define a number of the key technologies necessary
for adjustable x-ray optics for astronomy, give a brief description of the issues involved, and some status of
these activities being developed as part of our adjustable optics development program at the Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observatory.
The Chandra X-ray Observatory, with its sub-arc second resolution, has revolutionized X-ray astronomy by revealing an
extremely complex X-ray sky and demonstrating the power of the X-ray window in exploring fundamental astrophysical
problems. Larger area telescopes of still higher angular resolution promise further advances. We are engaged in the
development of a mission concept, Generation-X, a 0.1 arc second resolution x-ray telescope with tens of square meters
of collecting area, 500 times that of Chandra. To achieve these two requirements of imaging and area, we are
developing a grazing incidence telescope comprised of many mirror segments. Each segment is an adjustable mirror that
is a section of a paraboloid or hyperboloid, aligned and figure corrected in situ on-orbit.
To that end, finite element analyses of thin glass mirrors are performed to determine influence functions for each
actuator on the mirrors, in order to develop algorithms for correction of mirror deformations. The effects of several
mirror mounting schemes are also studied. The finite element analysis results, combined with measurements made on
prototype mirrors, will be used to further refine the correction algorithms.
Determination of the shape of very thin x-ray mirrors employed in spaced-based telescopes continues to be challenging.
The mirrors' shapes are not readily deduced to the required accuracy because the mount induced distortions are often
larger than the uncertainty tolerable for the mission metrology. In addition to static deformations, dynamic and thermal
considerations are exacerbated for this class of mirrors. We report on the performance of one temporary mounting
scheme for the thin glass mirrors for the Constellation-X mission and prospects for deducing their undistorted shapes.
The next large x-ray astrophysics mission launched will likely include soft x-ray spectroscopy as a primary capability. A
requirement to fulfill the science goals of such a mission is a large-area x-ray telescope focusing sufficient x-ray flux to
perform high-resolution spectroscopy with reasonable observing times. One approach to manufacturing such a telescope
is a Wolter-I optic utilizing thin glass segments rather than full shells of revolution. We describe a parameterized Finite
Element Modeling (FEM) study that provides insights useful in optimizing the design of a discrete support system to
balance the competing requirements of minimizing the effect on optical performance while providing sufficient support
to withstand launch loads. Parameters analyzed are number and location of the supports around the glass segments, as
well as the glass thickness, size, and angular span. In addition, we utilize more detailed models of several cases taken
from the parametric study to examine stress around the bonded area and bond pad size, and compare the stress from the
detailed model to the parametric cases from which they were derived.
Each of the four Spectroscopy X-ray Telescopes (SXT) on Constellation-X contain a mirror assembly comprised of
2600 primary and secondary mirror segments. Critical to the performance of the mirror assemblies is the alignment of
secondary to primary, and alignment of mirror pairs to one another. Focus errors must be corrected in order to meet
imaging error budgets. The use of segmented mirrors enables unique alignment strategies not feasible with mirror shells
of a full revolution. We discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of two Con-X alignment strategies to
minimize focus errors between shells. In the first approach, the mirrors are bent azimuthally to adjust the focal length of
the mirror pair. In the second approach, coma is used to compensate for the transverse focus error. We examine the
limits of applicability of the two approaches, and also discuss alignment error budgets.
The four Constellation-X Spectroscopy X-ray Telescopes require four sets of 2,600 thin mirror segments be supported
with minimum deformation and aligned with arc-second level accuracy. We have developed a support and alignment
system that minimizes segment deformation and allows the mirror segments to be made confocal. This system relies
upon a set of five mirror support points at each of the forward and aft ends of each segment. The support points are
radially adjustable so as to be able to modify the segment cone angles, thereby correcting any focal length errors.
Additional adjustments enable correction of segment centration and tilts to correct co-alignment errors and minimize
comatic aberration.
The support and alignment system is described and results are presented. Included are data demonstrating minimal
levels of figure distortion. Results are compared with error budget allocations.
As NASA's next major x-ray astronomical mission following the James Webb Space Telescope,
Constellation-X requires technology advances in several areas, including x-ray optics, x-ray detectors,
and x-ray gratings. In the area of x-ray optics, the technology challenge is in meeting a combination of
angular resolution, effective area, mass, and production cost requirements. A vigorous x-ray optics
development program has been underway to meet this challenge. Significant progress has been made in
mirror fabrication, mirror mount and metrology, and mirror alignment and integration. In this paper we
give a brief overview of our development strategy, technical approaches, current status, and expectations
for the near future and refer interested readers to papers with an in-depth coverage of similar areas.
The Solar-B X-ray telescope (XRT) is a grazing-incidence modified Wolter I X-ray telescope, of 35 cm inner diameter and 2.7 m focal length. XRT, designed for full sun imaging over the wavelength 6-60 Angstroms, will be the highest resolution solar X-Ray telescope ever flown. Images will be recorded by a 2048 X 2048 back-illuminated CCD with 13.5 μm pixels (1 arc-sec/pixel ) with full sun field of view. XRT will have a wide temperature sensitivity in order to observe and discriminate both the high (5-10 MK) and low temperature (1-5 MK) phenomena in the coronal plasma.
This paper presents preliminary results of the XRT mirror calibration performed at the X-ray Calibration Facility, NASA-MSFC, Huntsville, Alabama during January and February 2005. We discuss the methods and the most significant results of the XRT mirror performance, namely: characteristics of the point response function (PSF), the encircled energy and the effective area. The mirror FWHM is 0.8" when corrected for 1-g, finite source distance, and CCD pixelization. With the above corrections the encircled energy at 27 μm and 1keV is 52%. The effective area is greater than 2cm2 at 0.5keV and greater than 1.7cm2 at 1.0keV.
The Constellation-X mission is a follow-on to the current Chandra and XMM missions. It will place in orbit an array of four X-ray telescopes that will work in unison, having a substantial increase in effective area, energy resolution, and energy bandpass over current missions. To accomplish these ambitious increases new optics technologies must be exploited. The primary instrument for the mission is the Spectroscopy X-Ray Telescope (SXT), which covers the 0.21 to 10 keV band with a combination of two x-ray detectors: a reflection grating spectrometer with CCD readout and a micro-calorimeter. Mission requirements are an effective area of 15,000 cm2 near 1 keV and a 15 arc-sec (HPD) image resolution with a goal of 5 arc-sec. The Constellation-X SXT uses a segmented design with lightweight replicated optics. A technology development program is being pursued with the intent of demonstrating technical readiness prior to the program new start. Key elements of the program include the replication of the optical elements, assembly and alignment of the optics into a complete mirror assembly and demonstration of production techniques needed for fabrication of multiple units. These elements will be demonstrated in a series of engineering development and prototype optical assemblies which are increasingly flight-like. In this paper we present an image angular resolution error budgets for the SXT and for the Optical Assembly Pathfinder #2 (OAP2), the first of engineering development units intended to be tested in x-rays. We describe OAP2 image error sources and performance analyses made to assess error sensitivities. Finally we present an overall prediction of as-tested imaging performance in the x-ray test facility.
The Constellation-X observatory is planned to have four identical satellites, each of which carries, among other instruments, a Spectroscopic X-ray Telescope (SXT). The SXT has a 10m focal length and 1.6 m diameter aperture. It has a total effective X-ray collection area of ~7,500 cm2 at 1 keV. Mission science requirements call for an angular resolution of 15" half-power diameter (HPD) at the observatory level. Combining the large collection area requirement, the angular resolution requirement, and a mass requirement, we are faced with an unprecedented task of fabricating X-ray mirror segments with an areal density of only 1 kg/m2 which is typically called gossamer optics. We have adopted at two-step process for fabricating the mirror segments: (1) first slump a flat sheet of glass onto a forming mandrel to create a substrate, and then (2) epoxy-replicate the substrate off a precision replication mandrel to eliminate any defects or errors on its surface. As of the writing of this paper in late August 2003, we have demonstrated a process for reliably making excellent substrates. Best mirror segments fabricated so far, if aligned and mounted without error, have an angular resolution in the vicinity of 20" HPD, close to, but not quite, meeting requirements. We expect that in the next year, when forming mandrels that meet requirements are procured, we will be able to fabricate mirror segments that actually meet and even possibly exceed the SXT requirements. In this paper, we report on the baseline mirror fabrication method and the status of its development as of August 2003.
As NASA’s next facility-class x-ray mission, Constellation X will provide high-throughput, high-resolution spectroscopy for addressing fundamental astrophysical and cosmological questions. Key to the Constellation-X mission is the development of lightweight grazing-incidence optics for its Spectroscopy X-ray Telescopes (SXT) and for its Hard X-ray Telescopes (HXT). In preparation for x-ray testing Constellation-X SXT and HXT development and demonstration optics, Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) is upgrading its 100-m x-ray test facility, including development of a five degree-of-freedom (5-DoF) mount for translating and tilting test articles within the facility’s large vacuum chamber. To support development of alignment and assembly procedures for lightweight x-ray optics, Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) has prepared the Optical Alignment Pathfinder Two (OAP2), which will serve as a surrogate optic for developing and rehearsing x-ray test procedures. In order to minimize thermal distortion of the mirrors during x-ray testing, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) has designed and implemented a thermal control and monitoring system for the OAP2. CfA has also built an aperture wheel for masking and sub-aperture sampling of the OAP2 to aid in characterizing x-ray performance of test optics.
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