The Habitable Worlds Observatory will revolutionize our understanding of the universe by directly detecting biosignatures on extrasolar planets and allow us to answer the question if we are alone in the universe. To accomplish the tight science goals associated with this mission, the development of an ultrastable observatory with a coronagraphic instrument is necessary. The observatory itself may need to stay stable on the order of 10 picometers over a wavefront control cycle, orders of magnitude more stable than what is required on current space missions. The metrology to verify stability requirements must be roughly a factor of ten more stable. The ultrastable laboratory at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center has further stabilized its testbed to allow for dynamic measurements on diffuse and specular objects on the order of single picometers, and we are currently measuring drifts on the orders of tens of picometers over different temporal bands. This paper will discuss the mechanical updates to the testbed setup, the analysis performed on several test articles, and the path forward on the road to measuring achieving the required stability for Habitable Worlds Observatory.
The study of the universe through gravitational waves will yield a revolutionary new perspective on the universe, which has been intensely studied using electromagnetic waves in many wavelength bands. A space based gravitational wave observatory will enable access to a rich array of astrophysical sources in the measurement band from 0.1 mHz to 1 Hz. A space based mission complements ground based gravitational wave observatories, which typically search for signals at higher frequencies. LISA is a space based gravitational wave mission. Telescopes are one of the technology contributions from NASA to the European Space Agency (ESA) for the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) Mission. ESA adopted the LISA mission in January of 2024. We will describe the key requirements for the flight telescopes and summarize the current status of the technology development effort.
Optical designs for the next generation space science instruments call for unconventional, aspheric, and freeform (FF), prescriptions with tight tolerances. These advanced surfaces enable superior-performance, compact, and lower cost systems but are more challenging to characterize and, hence, to fabricate and integrate. A method was developed to characterize a wide range of optical surfaces, without requiring custom-made correctors, and to align them to each other for a high-performance optical system. A precision coordinate measuring machine, equipped with a non-contact, chromatic confocal probe, was used to measure numerous optics including large convex conics, high-sloped aspherics, several FF surfaces, and grazing-incidence x-ray optics. The resulting data were successfully reduced using custom-developed, advanced surface fitting analysis tool, to determine the optic’s alignment relative to the global and local coordinate systems, surface departure from design, and the as-built optical prescription. This information guided the modeling and the alignment of the corresponding as-built optical systems, including a flight system composed of a three-mirror anastigmat.
NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a 6.5m diameter, segmented, deployable telescope for cryogenic IR space astronomy. The JWST Observatory architecture includes the Primary Mirror Backplane Support Structure (PMBSS) and Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM) Electronics Compartment (IEC) which is designed to integrate to the spacecraft bus via six cup/cone interfaces. Prior to integration to the spacecraft bus, the JWST observatory must undergo environmental testing, handling, and transportation. Multiple fixtures were developed to support these tasks including the vibration fixture and handling and integration fixture (HIF). This work reports on the development of the nominal alignment of the six interfaces and metrology operations performed for the JWST observatory to safely integrate them for successful environmental testing.
NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a 6.6m diameter, segmented, deployable telescope for cryogenic IR space astronomy. The JWST Observatory architecture includes the Optical Telescope Element (OTE) and the Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM) element which contains four science instruments (SIs). Prior to integration with the spacecraft, the JWST optical assembly is put through rigorous launch condition environmental testing. This work reports on the metrology operations conducted to measure changes in subassembly alignment, including the primary mirror segments, the secondary mirror to its support structure, the tertiary mirror assembly to the backplane of the telescope and ISIM.
The NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and its partners have broad experience in the alignment of flight optical instruments and spacecraft structures. Over decades, GSFC developed alignment capabilities and techniques for a variety of optical and aerospace applications. In this paper, we provide an overview of a subset of the capabilities and techniques used on several recent projects in a “toolbox” format. We discuss a range of applications, from small-scale optical alignment of sensors to mirror and bench examples that make use of various large-volume metrology techniques. We also discuss instruments and analytical tools.
NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a 6.6m diameter, segmented, deployable telescope for cryogenic IR space astronomy. The JWST Observatory architecture includes the Optical Telescope Element (OTE) and the Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM) element which contains four science instruments (SI), including a guider. The SIs and guider are mounted to a composite metering structure with outer envelope approximate measurements of 2.2x2.2x1.7m. These SI units are integrated to the ISIM structure and optically tested at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center as an instrument suite using an Optical telescope element SIMulator (OSIM). OSIM is a high-fidelity, cryogenic JWST simulator that features a ~1.5m diameter powered mirror. The SIs are aligned to the flight structure’s coordinate system under ambient, clean room conditions using opto-mechanical metrology and customized interfaces. OSIM is aligned to the ISIM mechanical coordinate system at the cryogenic operating temperature via internal mechanisms and feedback from alignment sensors and metrology in six degrees of freedom. SI performance, including focus, pupil shear, pupil roll, boresight, wavefront error, and image quality, is evaluated at the operating temperature using OSIM. This work reports on the as-run ambient assembly and ambient alignment steps for the flight ISIM, including SI interface fixtures and customization and kinematic mount adjustment. The ISIM alignment plan consists of multiple steps to meet the “absolute” alignment requirements of the SIs and OSIM to the flight coordinate system. In this paper, we focus on key aspects of absolute, optical-mechanical alignment. We discuss various metrology and alignment techniques. In addition, we summarize our approach for dealing with and the results of ground-test factors, such as gravity.
KEYWORDS: Mirrors, James Webb Space Telescope, Optical alignment, Space telescopes, Optical components, Space telescopes, Optical telescopes, Adaptive optics, Data modeling, Telescopes, Shape memory alloys
The optical telescope element (OTE) of the James Webb Space Telescope has now been integrated and aligned. The OTE comprises the flight mirrors and the structure that supports them – 18 primary mirror segments, the secondary mirror, and the tertiary and fine steering mirrors (both housed in the aft optics subsystem). The primary mirror segments and the secondary mirror have actuators to actively control their positions during operations. This allows the requirements for aligning the OTE subsystems to be in the range of microns rather than nanometers. During OTE integration, the alignment of the major subsystems of the OTE structure and optics were controlled to ensure that, when the telescope is on orbit and at cryogenic temperatures, the active mirrors will be within the adjustment range of the actuators. Though the alignment of this flagship mission was complex and intricate, the key to a successful integration process turned out to be very basic: a clear, concise series of steps employing advanced planning, backup measurements, and cross checks that this multi-organizational team executed with a careful and methodical approach. This approach was not only critical to our own success but has implications for future space observatories.
KEYWORDS: Lawrencium, Silicon, Optical alignment, Virtual colonoscopy, James Webb Space Telescope, Metrology, Space telescopes, Telescopes, Finite element methods, Mirrors
While efforts within the optics community focus on the development of high-quality systems and data products, comparatively little attention is paid to their use. Our standards for verification and validation are high; but in some user domains, standards are either lax or do not exist at all. In forensic imagery analysis, for example, standards exist to judge image quality, but do not exist to judge the quality of an analysis. In litigation, a high quality analysis is by default the one performed by the victorious attorney’s expert. This paper argues for the need to extend quality standards into the domain of imagery analysis, which is expected to increase in national visibility and significance with the increasing deployment of unmanned aerial vehicle—UAV, or “drone”—sensors in the continental U. S.. It argues that like a good radiometric calibration, made as independent of the calibrated instrument as possible, a good analysis should be subject to standards the most basic of which is the separation of issues of scientific fact from analysis results.
The James Webb Space Telescope Integrated Science Instrument Module utilizes two fixtures to
align the Optical Telescope Element Simulator (OSIM) to the coordinate systems established on the
ISIM and the ISIM Test Platform (ITP). These fixtures contain targets which are visible to the OSIM
Alignment Diagnostics Module (ADM). Requirements on these fixtures must be met under ambient and
cryogenic conditions. This paper discusses the cryogenic metrology involving Laser Radar
measurements through a chamber window that will be used to link photogrammetry target measurements
used during ISIM structure cryogenic verification and the ADM targets, including evaluation of
distortion introduced from the window.
Phase Retrieval analysis of off-axis or defocused focal-plane data from telescope optics has been proven effective in
understanding misalignments and optical aberrations in normal incidence telescopes. The approach is used, e.g., in
commissioning of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) segmented primary mirror. There is a similar need for
evaluating low-order figure errors of grazing incidence mirrors and nested telescope assemblies. When implemented in
these systems, phase retrieval does not depend on normal incidence access to each mirror (shell) surface and, therefore,
provides an effective means for evaluating nested x-ray telescopes during integration and test.
We have applied a well-known phase retrieval algorithm to grazing incidence telescopes. The algorithm uses the
Levenberg-Marquardt optimization procedure to perform a non-linear least-squares fit of the telescope Point Spread
Function (PSF). The algorithm can also retrieve low order figure errors at visible wavelengths where optical diffraction
is the dominant defect in the PSF.
In this paper we will present the analytical approach and its implementation for grazing incidence mirrors of the
International X-Ray Observatory (IXO). We analyze the effects of low order axial surface errors individually, and in
combination on the system PSF at 633 nanometers. We demonstrate via modeling that the wavefront sensing algorithm
can recover axial errors (of the grazing incidence mirrors) to a small fraction of the known axial figure errors using
simulated PSFs as input data to the algorithm.
We present an overview update of the metrologic approach to be employed for the segmented mirror fabrication for the
IXO soft x-ray telescope. We compare results achieved to date with mission requirements. This is discussed in terms of
inherent capability versus in-practice capability. We find that all the needed metrology equipment are in hand but that a
number of the needed quantities remain too uncertain relative to mission requirements. This is driven by the mounting
of the mirrors themselves. We then discuss some plans for addressing the mirror mounting issues. Finally, we also
briefly discuss some promising mandrel metrology techniques.
We present a method for the precision alignment of cylinder lenses which has been employed for the null lenses used to
test the segmented mirrors for the IXO x-ray telescope. We also present a design for a housing for such a lens.
The International X-Ray Observatory (IXO) is a NASA, ESA, and JAXA joint mission. It requires a
mirror assembly with unprecedented characteristics that cannot be provided by existing optical
technologies. In the past several years, the project office at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center has
supported a vigorous mirror technology development program. This program includes the fabrication of
lightweight mirror segments by slumping commercially available thin glass sheets, the support and
mounting of these thin mirror segments for accurate metrology, the mounting and attachment of these
mirror segments for the purpose of X-ray tests, and development of methods for aligning and integrating
these mirror segments into mirror assemblies. This paper describes our efforts and developments in these
areas.
Determination of the shape of very thin x-ray mirrors employed in spaced-based telescopes continues to be challenging.
The mirrors' shapes are not readily deduced to the required accuracy because the mount induced distortions are often
larger than the uncertainty tolerable for the mission metrology. In addition to static deformations, dynamic and thermal
considerations are exacerbated for this class of mirrors. We report on the performance of one temporary mounting
scheme for the thin glass mirrors for the Constellation-X mission and prospects for deducing their undistorted shapes.
The Constellation-X Spectroscopy X-ray Telescope (SXT) is a segmented, tightly nested Wolter-I telescope with a
requirement of approximately 12.5 arcseconds HPD for the mirror system. The individual mirror segments are 0.4 mm
thick, formed glass, making the task of mounting, alignment and bonding extremely challenging. Over the past year we
have developed a series of tools to meet these challenges, the latest of which is an upgrade to the 600-meter x-ray beam
line at GSFC. The new facilities allow us to perform full aperture and sub-aperture imaging tests of mirror segment
pairs to locate the source of deformations and correlate them with our optical metrology. We present the optical
metrology of the axial figure and Hartmann focus, x-ray imaging performance predictions based on analysis of the
optical metrology, and both full aperture and sub-aperture x-ray imaging performance of test mirror segment pairs at
8.05 keV.
As NASA's next major space X-ray observatory, the Constellation-X mission (Bookbinder et al. 2008)
requires mirror assemblies with unprecedented characteristics that cannot be provided by existing optical
technologies. In the past several years, the project has supported a vigorous mirror technology
development program. This program includes the fabrication of lightweight mirror segments by slumping
commercially available thin glass sheets, the support and mounting of these thin mirror segments for
accurate metrology, the mounting and attachment of these mirror segments for the purpose of X-ray tests,
and development of methods for aligning and integrating these mirror segments into mirror assemblies.
This paper describes our efforts and developments in these areas.
As NASA's next major x-ray astronomical mission following the James Webb Space Telescope,
Constellation-X requires technology advances in several areas, including x-ray optics, x-ray detectors,
and x-ray gratings. In the area of x-ray optics, the technology challenge is in meeting a combination of
angular resolution, effective area, mass, and production cost requirements. A vigorous x-ray optics
development program has been underway to meet this challenge. Significant progress has been made in
mirror fabrication, mirror mount and metrology, and mirror alignment and integration. In this paper we
give a brief overview of our development strategy, technical approaches, current status, and expectations
for the near future and refer interested readers to papers with an in-depth coverage of similar areas.
We present an overview update of the metrologic approach to be employed for the segmented mirror fabrication for
Constellation-X spectroscopy x-ray telescope. We compare results achieved to date with mission requirements. This is
discussed in terms of inherent capability versus in-practice capability. We find that all the needed metrics for the mirrors
are in hand but that they are currently limited by the mounting of the mirrors themselves.
We present an introduction to the use of a refractive null lens for testing grazing incidence x-ray mirrors for
the Constellation-X mission. The singular role of mirror mounting in glass shell mirror metrology is also
touched upon. We compare results achieved to date with mission requirements along with some of the
unique properties of the null lens. Additionally, uses beyond mirror metrology are briefly discussed.
We present the concepts behind the current alignment and integration technique for a Constellation-X primary-secondary
mirror segment pair prior to an x-ray beam line test. We examine the effects of a passive mount on thin glass x-ray mirror
segments, and the issues of mount shape and environment on alignment. We also investigate how bonding and transfer to a
permanent housing affects the quality of the final image.
A simple method is found to align multielement cylindrical lenses. The method employs only equipment found in most optical shops: a precision flat mirror and a Fizeau interferometer. A combination of narrow reflection interferograms from the lens surfaces, combined with cat-eye double-pass interferograms, is employed to align the elements.
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is an infrared, space-based telescope scheduled for launch in 2013. JWST will hold four scientific instruments, including the Near Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec). NIRSpec operates in the wavelength range from 0.6 to 5 microns, and will be assembled by the European Space Agency. NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) is responsible for two NIRSpec subsystems: the detector subsystem, with the focal plane array (FPA), and the micro-shutter subsystem, with the micro-shutter assembly (MSA). The FPA consists of two side-by-side Rockwell Scientific HgCdTe 2Kx2K detectors, with the detectors and readout electronics optimized for low noise. The MSA is a GSFC developed micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) that serves as a programmable slit mask, allowing NIRSpec to obtain simultaneous spectra of >100 objects in a single field of view. We present the optical characterization test plan of the FPA. The test plan is driven by many requirements: cryogenic operating temperature, a flight-like beam shape, and multi-wavelength flux from 1 to 10,000 photons per second, thus low stray light is critical. We use commercial optical modeling software to predict stray light effects at the FPA. We also present the optical contrast test plan of the MSA. Each individual shutter element operates in an on/off state, and the most important optical metric is contrast. The MSA is designed to minimize stray and scattered light, and the test setup reduces stray light such that the optical contrast is measurable.
A single Constellation-X Spectroscopy X-ray Telescope (SXT) mirror segment pair is being aligned in the Optical
Alignment Pathfinder 2 (OAP2) platform using a combination of mechanical and optical techniques. Coarse positioning
was provided through a contact probe, the alignment was refined in a collimated while-light facility used for the Suzaku
(ASTRO-E2) satellite, and then finalized with a combination of a Centroid Detector Assembly (CDA) and an
interferometer coupled to a novel conical null lens providing surface map imaging over 60% of the mirror surface at one
time. Due to a variety of reasons, the positioning and figure of the mirror segment under examination can shift, and we
test how reliably high quality alignment can be reproduced on any given day. Also, the mirror segment's deformation
response to deliberate misalignments has been tested, providing a response matrix for these thin glass mirror segments.
We designed a refractive null lens for (visible) optical testing of the segmented mirrors for the Constellation-X spectroscopy x-ray telescope. We explored two solution families and identified the trade-offs. We also present some initial results of the realization of one solution family.
KEYWORDS: Wavefront sensors, Data modeling, Diffraction, James Webb Space Telescope, Phase retrieval, Spectrographs, Mirrors, Cameras, Point spread functions, Astronomical imaging
An analysis is presented that illustrates how the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) fine-phasing process can be carried out using the Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) data collected at the science focal plane. The analysis considers a multi-plane diffraction model which properly accounts for the microshutter diffractive element placed at the first relay position of the spectrograph. Wavefront sensing results are presented based on data collected from the NASA Goddard Microshutter Optical Testbed.
We present the metrology requirements and metrology implementation necessary to optically characterize the reflector technology for the Constellation-X (C-X) spectroscopy x-ray telescope (SXT). This segmented, 1.6m diameter highly nested telescope presents many metrology and alignment challenges. In particular, these mirrors have a stringent imaging error budget as compared to their intrinsic stiffness. The low stiffness is seen to be implied by the required effective area and the required weight. The low mirror stiffness has implications for the metrology that can be used.
A variety of contact and non-contact optical profiling and interferometric methods are combined to test the formed glass substrates before replication and the replicated reflector segments. The reflectors are tested both stand-alone and in-situ in an alignment tower. Some of these methods have not been used on prior x-ray telescopes and some are feasible only because of the segmented approach used on the SXT. Methods to be discussed include high precision coordinate measurement machines using very low force or optical probes, axial interferometric profiling, azimuthal circularity profiling, and use of advanced null optics such as conical computer generated hologram (CGHs).
We present the metrology requirements and metrology implementation necessary to prove out the mirror technology for the Constellation-X (C-X) soft x-ray telescope (SXT). This segmented, 1.6m diameter highly nested Wolter-1 telescope presents many metrology and alignment challenges. A variety of contact and non-contact optical shape measurement, profiling and interferometric methods are combined to test the forming mandrels, some of the replication mandrels, the formed glass substrates before replication and the replicated mirror segments. The mirror segments are tested both stand-alone and in-situ in mirror assemblies. Some of these methods have not been used on prior x-ray telescopes and some are feasible only because of the segmented approach used on the SXT. Methods to be discussed include axial interferometric profiling, azimuthal circularity profiling, midfrequency error profiling, and axial roughness profiling. The most critical measurement is axial profiling, and we compare the method in use to previous methods such as the long trace profilometer (LTP). A companion paper discusses the method of non-contact 3D profiling using a laser sensor and distance measuring interferometers.
We are reporting our progress in the measurements of thin glass optics under development for the soft X-ray telescope for the Constellation-X space observatory. We are using a Non-Contact laser probe (which uses triangulation techniques to measure displacement) to determine the surface shape of our ultra-lightweight mirrors. If this technique meets technical specifications we will for the first time have mapped the 3 dimensional surfaces of ultra-lightweight optics. As a secondary project, we are also automating this entire process which will give us better repeatability.
The Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer (IRMOS) is a facility instrument for the Kitt Peak National Observatory 4 and 2.1 meter telescopes. IRMOS is a near-IR (0.8 - 2.5 μm) spectrometer with low- to mid-resolving power (R = 300 - 3000). The IRMOS spectrometer produces simultaneous spectra of ~100 objects in its 2.8 x 2.0 arcmin field of view using a commercial MEMS multi-mirror array device (MMA) from Texas Instruments. The IRMOS optical design consists of two imaging subsystems. The focal reducer images the focal plane of the telescope onto the MMA field stop, and the spectrograph images the MMA onto the detector. We describe the breadboard subsystem alignment method and imaging performance of the focal reducer. This testing provides verification of the optomechanical alignment method and a measurement of near-angle scattered light due to mirror small-scale surface error. Interferometric measurements of subsystem wavefront error serve to verify alignment and are accomplished using a commercial, modified Twyman-Green laser unequal path interferometer. Image testing is then performed for the central field point. A mercury-argon pencil lamp provides the spectral line at 546.1 nm, and a CCD camera is the detector. We use the Optical Surface Analysis Code to predict the point-spread function and its effect on instrument slit transmission, and our breadboard test results validate this prediction. Our results show that scattered light from the subsystem and encircled energy is slightly worse than expected. Finally, we perform component level image testing of the MMA, and our results show that scattered light from the MMA is of the same magnitude as that of the focal reducer.
Aluminum foam core optics can be lightweight, cryo-stable, and low cost. The optimal design of a lightweight mirror is a sandwich with very thin, closely spaced support ribs. Open cell foams, used in sandwich mirrors, approach this optimum design. The availability of high quality aluminum foam and a bare aluminum polishing process have allowed high performance foam core optics made entirely of aluminum to be produced. The long history of aluminum space structures makes all aluminum optical systems attractive for many applications. We report on fabrication and testing of foam core and solid aluminum mirrors. Mirrors with integral mounts were designed for minimum surface error induced by self-weight deflection, thermal gradients, and mounting stresses. Previous work demonstrated the superiority of foam sandwich mirror construction over isogrid lightweighting, and finite element modeling to optimize the mirror design. Recent progress includes: (1) delivery of a lightweight aluminum foam core scan mirror for the Compact Visible-Infrared Radiometer, (2) cryo-stability tests on lightweight foam core spherical mirrors, and (3) an interferometric test of the 'align warm, use cold' concept using a simulated instrument, the Offner Relay. The 'align warm, use cold' concept eliminates the iterative process of misalignment compensation for CTE mismatch as well as figure changing due to CTE mismatch.
Methods for surface metrology have advanced significantly in the last few years, driven largely by the metrology needs for advanced lithographic processes. This paper applies recently developed metrology techniques to the specific problem of determining the groove structure of diffraction gratings well enough to reliably predict performance. Metrology devices used include an atomic force microscope, a contact profilometer, and a late-model optical microinterferometer. Examples of shallow (far-UV, high dispersion) and deep (IR echelle) gratings are presented, along with some conclusions of which metrology techniques are applicable for which types of diffraction grating. Also required along with the metrology is the use of fast, full electromagnetic model efficiency calculation codes which calculate the efficiency to be expected from a given mount, materials set, and grating profile. We present results qualifying codes we use against known and published results.
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