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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Schwiegerling, Jim. Field guide to visual and opththalmic optics / Jim Schwiegerling. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8194-5628-4 1. Physiological optics. I. Title. QP475.S385 2004 612.8′4--dc22 2004020668 Published by SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering P.O. Box 10 Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA Phone: +1360 676 3290 Fax: +1360 647 1445 Email: spie@spie.org Web: http://spie.org The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the author(s). Every effort has been made to publish reliable and accurate information herein, but the publisher is not responsible for the validity of the information or for any outcomes resulting from reliance thereon. Printed in the United States of America.
Introduction to the SeriesWelcome to the SPIE Field Guides! This volume is one of the first in a new series of publications written directly for the practicing engineer or scientist. Many textbooks and professional reference books cover optical principles and techniques in depth. The aim of the SPIE Field Guides is to distill this information, providing readers with a handy desk or briefcase reference that provides basic, essential information about optical principles, techniques, or phenomena, including definitions and descriptions, key equations, illustrations, application examples, design considerations, and additional resources. A significant effort will be made to provide a consistent notation and style between volumes in the series. Each SPIE Field Guide addresses a major field of optical science and technology. The concept of these Field Guides is a format-intensive presentation based on figures and equations supplemented by concise explanations. In most cases, this modular approach places a single topic on a page, and provides full coverage of that topic on that page. Highlights, insights and rules of thumb are displayed in sidebars to the main text. The appendices at the end of each Field Guide provide additional information such as related material outside the main scope of the volume, key mathematical relationships and alternative methods. While complete in their coverage, the concise presentation may not be appropriate for those new to the field. The SPIE Field Guides are intended to be living documents. The modular page-based presentation format allows them to be easily updated and expanded. We are interested in your suggestions for new Field Guide topics as well as what material should be added to an individual volume to make these Field Guides more useful to you. Please contact us at fieldguides@SPIE.org. John E. Greivenkamp, Series Editor Optical Sciences Center The University of Arizona Field Guide to Visual and Ophthalmic OpticsVisual optics is a scientific field that brings together many disciplines. Optical engineering and biology are interwoven to produce the most sophisticated imaging system known. The human visual system functions over a broad range of conditions, adapts to its surroundings and is capable of quickly processing complex visual information at enviable speeds. Many of the great names of optical physics such as Newton, Maxwell, Young, Helmholtz, and Alvarez have all made significant contributions to the field of visual optics. This book assembles much of the anatomy, physiology, and functioning of the eye, as well as the engineering and design of a wide assortment of tools for measuring, photographing and characterizing properties of the surfaces and structures of the eye. Finally, descriptions of our attempts to correct vision, reverse the aging process, and improve on Mother Nature are given. I would like to express my gratitude to several colleagues for their help with this book. First, I’d like to thank John Greivenkamp for granting the opportunity to write this book and for his mentoring and friendship. Second, I’d like to thank Joseph Miller, whose enthusiasm for engineering is contagious, and whose ideas are always elegant. Finally, I’d like to thank Charlie Campbell for passing on a bit of his wisdom and knowledge and for providing an outlet for my babbling about Zernike polynomials. This book is dedicated to my wonderful wife Diana, my son Max, and my daughter Marie. Jim Schwiegerling Dept. of Ophthalmology and Optical Sciences Center, University of Arizona Table of ContentsGlossary x Ocular Function 1 Eyeball 1 Cornea 2 Retina 3 Photoreceptors 4 Retinal Landmarks 5 Properties of Ocular Components 6 Accommodation 7 Pupil Size and Dark Adaptation 8 Transmission and Reflectance 9 Axes of the Eye 10 Stiles-Crawford Effect 11 Photopic V(λ) and Scotopic V′(λ) Response 12 Eye Movements 13 Vergence 14 Paraxial Schematic Eye 15 Arizona Eye Model 16 Aberrations 17 Visual Acuity 19 Visual Acuity and Eye Charts 20 Contrast Sensitivity Function (CSF) 21 Emmetropia and Ametropia 23 Far and Near Points 24 Presbyopia 25 Correction of Ocular Errors 26 Spectacles: Single Vision 26 Spectacle Lenses 27 Lensmeter 28 Spherical and Cylindrical Refractive Error 29 Prismatic Error 30 Astigmatic Decomposition 31 Special Ophthalmic Lenses 32 Variable Prisms and Lenses 33 Contact Lenses 34 Radiuscope 35 Spectacle and Contact Lens Materials 36 Surgical Correction of Refractive Error 37 Cataract Surgery 38 Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 39 Purkinje Images 39 Fluorescein Imaging 40 Indocyanine Green Imaging 41 Keratometry 42 Corneal Topography 43 Corneal Topography: Axial Power 44 Corneal Topography: Instantaneous Power 45 Anterior Segment Imaging 46 Wavefront Sensing: Shack-Hartmann Sensing 47 Wavefront Sensing: Tscherning Aberrometry 48 Wavefront Sensing: Retinal Raytracing 49 Wavefront Sensing: Spatially Resolved Refractometry 50 Wavefront Sensing: Reconstruction 51 Zernike Polynomials: Wavefront Sensing Standard 53 Zernike Polynomials: Cartesian Coordinates 54 Zernike Polynomials: Useful Formulas 55 Ophthalmoscopy 57 Retinal Imaging 58 Field of View and Perimetry 59 Retinoscopy 60 Autorefraction 61 Badal Optometer and Maxwellian View 62 Common Ophthalmic Lasers 63 Eye Safety: Laser Sources 64 Eye Safety: Non-laser Sources 65 Color 66 Photometry 66 Colorimetry: RGB and CIE XYZ Systems 67 Colorimetry: Chromaticity Diagram 68 Colorimetry: Primaries and Gamut 69 Colorimetry: CIELUV Color Space 70 Colorimetry: CIELAB Color Space 71 Chromatic Adaptation 72 L, M, and S Cone Fundamentals 73 Appendices 74 Aspheric and Astigmatic Surfaces 74 Differential Geometry 75 Trigonometric Identities 76 CIE Photopic V(λ) and Scotopic V′(λ) Response 77 1931 CIE 2° Color Matching Functions 78 1964 CIE 10° Color Matching Functions 80 Stockman & Sharpe 2° Cone Fundamentals 82 Incoherent Retinal Hazard Functions 85 Zernike Polynomials: Table in Polar Coordinates 87 Zernike Polynomials: Table in Cartesian Coordinates 88 Equation Summary 89 Bibliography 99 Index 105 GlossaryA Accommodation A A-constant α* Color coordinate in CIELAB space A(λ) Aphakic & infant retinal hazard function A(θ) Oblique astigmatism ACD Anterior chamber depth AK Astigmatic keratotomy ARMD Age-related macular degeneration ArF Argon fluoride Axis Cylinder axis B Blue channel in RGB space b* Color coordinate in CIELAB space B(λ) Blue light retinal hazard function Color matching function in CIE RGB space BD Base down BI Base in BO Base out BU Base up CA, CB, Cc Constants for laser exposure calculations C*uv, C*ab Chroma cd Units of candelas CIE Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage CK Conductive keratoplasty CMF Color matching function CSF Contrast sensitivity function Cyl Cylinder power D Units of diopters (inverse meters) D Pupil diameter d Distance dϕ Power error D65 6500° K reference white light source E Component of the first fundamental form Ev Illuminance F Component of the first fundamental form f Focal length fo Spatial frequency FOV Field of view G Green channel in RGB Space G Component of the first fundamental form Color matching function in CIE RGB space H Mean curvature hab, huv Hue HDTV High-definition television Iv Luminous intensity ICG Indocyanine green IOL Intraocular lens J0 Horizontal crossed cylinder J45 Oblique crossed cylinder JCC Jackson crossed cylinder K Conic constant K Keratometry values K Gaussian curvature L Luminance L Axial length L Component of the second fundamental form L*, Lv, Lλ Luminance L(λ) Long-wavelength cone fundamental LA LogMAR acuity LASEK Laser epithelial keratomileusis LASIK Laser in situ keratomileusis LOS Line of sight LCA Longitudinal chromatic aberration lm Units of lumens LSA Longitudinal spherical aberration LTK Laser thermal keratoplasty lux Units of lumens/m2 M Spherical equivalent power M Component of the second fundamental form M(λ) Middle-wavelength cone fundamental MPE Maximum permissible exposure N Component of the second fundamental form n,n′ Index of refraction nk Keratometric index of refraction OCT Optical coherence tomography OD Oculus dexter (right eye) OS Oculus sinister (left eye) OU Oculus uterque (both eyes) P Prism power PI-PIV Purkinje images PAL Progressive addition lens PD Interpupillary distance PIOLs Phakic intraocular lenses PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate PRK Photorefractive keratectomy q′ Center of rotation of the eye R Radius of curvature R Red channel in RGB space r Radial position in polar coordinates Rx, Ry Radii of curvature along the x and y axes R(λ) Thermal retinal hazard function Color matching function in CIE RGB space RGP Rigid gas permeable RK Radial keratotomy ROC Radius of curvature S Snellen fraction S(λ) Short-wavelength cone fundamental SEP Spherical equivalent power SF Surgeon factor SLO Scanning laser ophthalmoscope SLT Selective laser trabeculoplasty Sph Spherical power t Thickness t Exposure time Td Units of troland U Object vergence u*,u Color coordinates in CIELUV space V Image vergence υ*, υ′ Color coordinates in CIELUV space V(λ) CIE photopic response V’(λ) CIE scotopic response V*(λ) Stockman & Sharpe corrected photopic response W Wavefront error X Tristimulus value in CIE XYZ space x Chromaticity coordinate in CIE XYZ space x Horizontal Cartesian coordinate Color matching function in CIE XYZ space Y Tristimulus value in CIE XYZ space y Chromaticity coordinate in CIE XYZ space y Vertical Cartesian coordinate Color matching function in CIE XYZ space Z Tristimulus value in CIE XYZ space z Chromaticity coordinate in CIE XYZ space z Axial Cartesian coordinate Color matching function in CIE XYZ space (ρ,θ) Zernike polynomial Δ Units of prism diopters ΔE Color difference in CIELAB and CIELUV spaces Δλ Wavelength interval Δx, Δy, Δz Translation along Cartesian axes Φ,ϕ Power Φa Axial power Φi Instantaneous power Φv Luminous flux Φ(λ) Radiometric power κ1, κ2 Principal curvatures λ Wavelength θ Angle in polar coordinates ρ Normalized radial position in polar coordinates τ Transmission |
CITATIONS
Visual optics
Eye
Wavefront sensors
Visualization
Colorimetry
Zernike polynomials
Imaging systems
