This paper introduces a double-parameter distributed fiber sensing system that utilizes stimulated Brillouin scattering in a specialized fiber, distinguished by two gain peaks in its scattering spectrum with nearly identical intensity levels. Employing this specialty fiber in a Brillouin optical time domain analysis system, we conduct a comprehensive analysis highlighting their efficacy in the simultaneous measurement of strain and temperature. These fibers are characterized by a significant temperature coefficient disparity (~0.2 MHz/°C) between the two peaks, and similar large peak gain amplitudes resulting minimal Brillouin frequency shift uncertainties, thereby substantially reducing strain and temperature measurement errors. We evaluated strain and temperature coefficients of 47 kHz/με, 1.15 MHz/°C for the first peak, and 51 kHz/με, 1.37 MHz/°C for the second one, which were then applied in the simultaneous measurement of strain and temperature under various conditions, including an applied strain of 1220 με at temperatures of 62°C and 72°C. The results indicate a significant enhancement in measurement accuracy, reducing errors to ~17 με and ~ 0.9°C in terms of strain and temperature respectively. Additionally, strain and temperature errors due to the impact of the variance of Brillouin frequency shift uncertainty between two peaks are explored. This study underscores the potential of the proposed double- Brillouin peak fiber in critical applications such as long-distance natural gas pipeline monitoring, where precise and distinct measurements of strain and temperature are paramount.
The integration of Rayleigh and Brillouin scattering in a hybrid sensor system has revolutionized the field of distributed fiber optic sensing. This hybrid sensor system provides a strong and all-encompassing solution for monitoring multiple physical parameters, including strain, temperature, and vibrations along the sensing fiber length by combining the strengths of both scattering phenomena. We present a hybrid multi-parameter distributed sensing system in this paper that is based on the Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering mechanisms. Utilizing a single-end access to the sensing fiber, we measured acoustic vibrations based on phase-sensitive optical time domain reflectometry (Φ-OTDR), whereas we employed a Brillouin optical time reflectometry (BOTDR) for strain and temperature monitoring. The experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the hybrid sensor system to achieve simultaneous and independent measurements over a 25 km long single-mode silica fiber at 3 m spatial resolution. Furthermore, we used a large effective area fiber (LEAF) for simultaneous and discriminative strain, temperature, and vibration monitoring in order to get around the cross-sensitivity between the strain and temperature in the BOTDR system. A variety of applications, such as the structural health monitoring of buildings, bridges, and oil and gas pipelines, industrial process control, security, and surveillance, can be served by the suggested multi-parameter hybrid distributed sensor system.
Electrical system monitoring applications are of increasing importance given recent trends towards electrification driving adoption of renewables and electric vehicles, for example. Thermal and acoustic signatures play an important role in health monitoring while electrical and magnetic field signatures can provide information about operational state. Optical fiber sensors are of particular interest for electrical system applications because of the compatibility with deployment in electrified systems without concerns for electromagnetic interference (EMI) or additional potential risks due to the presence of electrical sensor wires or power at the sensing location, particularly for medium voltage electrical systems. In this presentation, an overview of recent work in optical fiber-based sensing for electrical asset monitoring applications will be discussed in detail. Plasmonic sensors integrated with engineered nanomaterials will be discussed for thermal and other health monitoring applications while interferometric sensors will be discussed for acoustics and also magnetic fields and electrical current sensing. New directions in fiber-based sensing applications will also be discussed moving into the future.
Distributed acoustic fiber optic sensors (DAS) enable spatially distributed monitoring of perturbations and contain rich multidimensional information that can be used in structural health monitoring. Machine learning based on physics-based simulations can make a breakthrough in traditional data analysis methods to improve their efficiency and performance, solving a series of problems such as huge data volume, low data processing speed, data signal-to-noise ratio, etc. Here, the relationship of DAS response and corrosion type are studied. First, we present a systematic theoretical study of the potential of direct coupling of quasi-distributed acoustic sensing (q-DAS) with guided ultrasound typically used for real-time pipeline health monitoring. To investigate properties of scattered acoustic waves and the performance of DAS and q-DAS in identifying defects, we use finite element analysis to simulate the response in a variety of pipeline structures including welds, clamps, defect types, and sensor installations representing various corrosion patterns expected in practice. A specific emphasis will be placed upon simulating and modeling pitting corrosion defects and contrasting with other types of corrosion observed in practice. We also aim to compare and analyze signal characteristics due to different kinds of corrosion types and structures, and to enhance machine learning algorithms for detection and size prediction of major pipeline structural changes and corrosion types. Ultimately, results of simulated DAS and q-DAS sensor networks are analyzed by a neural network-based machine learning algorithm for defect identification through supervised learning. To evaluate and improve effectiveness, we estimate model uncertainty and identify features of simulated results that contribute most to the model performance and efficacy.
Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) are well-known optical sensors, which have been widely used to perform temperature and strain measurements. Due to the cross-sensitivities of FBGs to both temperature and axial strain changes, using these fiber sensors for high-accuracy temperature measurements remained questionable. This paper presents an FBG sensor packaging technique that produces strain-free, multiplexable fiber temperature sensors. Using a precision CO2 laser heating process, a low-loss and mechanically robust fiber taper is formed near the FBG sensor, which relieves potential axial strain influence on FBG’s temperature measurements. FBG sensors with tapered junctions were housed in a two-hole PEEK tube. The entire structure is then inserted into a thicker hollow PEEK tubing and welded in place. This design protects the fiber sensor from mechanical breakage and isolates it from external stress. This paper reports highly accurate temperature measurements from 77k to 567k. It presents a viable approach to developing multiplexable temperature sensors for cryogenic environment applications.
Absence of a final repository for nuclear waste has increased attention on dry cask storage systems (DCSSs) which were originally intended for temporary storage, increasing the need for new structural health monitoring paradigms considering safety and environmental impacts. Current integrity inspection requirements consist of periodic manned inspections due in part to the difficulties with real-time monitoring of internal canister conditions without penetrating the canister surface. Here we overview a new approach to nuclear canister integrity structural health monitoring which combines both quasi-distributed fiber optic acoustic (and other) sensing modalities deployed external to the canister as well as physics-based modeling to enable real-time inference of internal canister conditions, including the identification, localization, and classification of various active or incipient failure conditions. More specifically, we overview the vision for the proposed monitoring approach and describe results to date in theoretical physics-based modeling and artificial intelligence-based analytics to accelerate the development of classification frameworks for rapid interpretation of quasi-distributed acoustic and other complementary fiber optic sensing responses. In addition, we describe early results obtained for a quasi-distributed fiber optic sensor network based upon multimode interferometer sensors using an experimental test bed established for dry-cask storage canister sensing experiments. Future work will be overviewed and discussed in the context of expanded scope of the proposed real-time monitoring system and planned field validations.
In this paper, we field demonstrate a natural gas pipeline monitoring based on optical frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR). OFDR can monitor distributed temperature and strain measurements along the natural gas pipelines and provide valuable information about pipe structural health, like hoop strain changes caused by pipe wall thinning or temperature changes from gas leaks based on Joule-Thomson effect. Distributed temperature and strain measurements were demonstrated where the pipeline operated at various pressure levels. The static pressure-induced hoop strain in a pilot-scale field test in a natural gas flowing high-pressure loop. The pilot scale testing results demonstrated in this paper indicate that the OFDR system is a promising tool for real-time monitoring of a pipeline without influence on normal operating conditions of the gas pipeline.
In this paper, we field demonstrate a water pipeline flow detection based on a simple, low-cost, and highly sensitive fiber optic acoustic sensor. The fiber acoustic sensor consists of a multimode interference effect in a single-mode-multimode-single-mode (SMS) fiber structure. In the field test, we mounted an SMS fiber sensor on a 6” diameter water pipeline, where water flow is precisely controlled by a variable frequency driver (ABB-ACQ580 sensor-less drive). The experimental results indicate that the proposed SMS fiber acoustic sensor can be effectively applied for practical applications of pipeline flow monitoring and identify leak detection with high sensitivity and accuracy.
Optical fiber based electro-magnetic field sensors is a diverse and expanding field in fiber sensor technology with applications spanning from geomagnetism, biomagnetism, nuclear magnetism to safety and operational monitoring of power grid systems. Particularly, because of the dielectric silica material of the fiber that provides high electric insulation and immunity to the electromagnetic interference (EMI), a major reason contributing to the limitations in conventional sensors, the efforts have been focused on developing the fiber-optic sensors with increased sensitivity, bandwidth, and detection range specific to an application but all benefit from the advantages of the platform. Various fiber structures, interrogation schemes and sensing materials have been investigated. One major interest is on the fiber-optic sensor based on multi-mode interference (MMI) where a multimode mode fiber is fusion spliced between two single mode fibers also known as SMS (single-mode/multimode/single mode) fiber sensor. Ease of fabrication, compactness, higher sensitivity, and low cost are some of the driving factors in addition to the potential for direct integration of the platform with functional sensor materials to tailor for specific applications. For the purpose of magnetic field sensing, the magnetic fluid is the most widely used functional material as the sensing/cladding layer on the fiber-structure. Here we present efforts to enhance and optimize the sensitivity of such SMS structure with magnetic fluid as the sensing material exploiting the unique “self-imaging” property of the SMS sensor where the sensor produces a filterlike spectral response and is highly sensitive to the change in magneto-optical property of surrounding medium. The performance metrics of the sensor are analyzed against DC magnetic field range keeping an eye in detecting typical current induced magnetic field in power grid systems.
KEYWORDS: Signal to noise ratio, Acoustics, Optical fibers, Metals, Single mode fibers, Optical sensing, Ferroelectric materials, Structural health monitoring, Fiber optics sensors, Data acquisition
Pipeline infrastructure monitoring based on distributed fiber-optic acoustic sensing is gaining significant attention aimed at real-time rapid detection of leakages, third-party intrusion, geo-hazards, corrosion, and other structural damages. Typical fibers installations are external to a pipeline, however retrofitting of existing pipelines through internal installation is desirable despite deployment challenges. Highly sensitive distributed acoustic sensing integrated within new pipelines or retrofit in existing pipelines can enable early detection of damage and degradation. In this work, we demonstrate pipeline integrity monitoring using distributed acoustic sensing and the Rayleigh backscattering-enhanced optical fibers deployed internal to the pipeline for high sensitivity detection of acoustic events. More specifically, traditional and backscattering-enhanced optical fibers are interrogated using bench-top phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometry (Φ-OTDR). The distributed acoustic sensing characteristics of two types of backscattered-enhanced fibers, Type A and Type B, are experimentally investigated. Our measurement analysis shows that the SNR of the acoustic event detection enhances ~2-fold and ~3-fold using the Type A and Type B fiber, respectively than that of the traditional SMF for pipeline monitoring. The presented investigation is a first validation for in-pipe deployed distributed acoustic sensing with high SNR and provides useful insight for diverse pipeline monitoring applications in the oil and gas distribution industry.
Nanocomposite thin-film coated fiber optic sensors can be a promising solution to real-time temperature monitoring of electrical assets and imminent failure detection owing to minimal electrical connections and immunity to electromagnetic interference. However, cost of optical interrogation hardware has been a major roadblock for commercialization of fiber optic sensors. Here, we present a novel and simplified design of a fiber optic temperature sensor based on localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) response, a low-cost photodiode transimpedance-amplifier (TIA) circuit and collimated LED for monitoring applications where the cost of deployment is a critical consideration. The TIA circuit is designed to capture temperature-induced optical transmission and reflection responses by photocurrent-converted voltage variations communicated through Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) wireless communication protocols. Wirelessly interrogable optical fiber sensors can therefore be potentially integrated in a wide range of assets such as grid-scale energy storage and medium or high voltage electric power conversion systems. To further minimize system complexity as compared to transmissionbased sensors demonstrated previously, a major emphasis is on a new reflection-based fiber sensor probe. This is also simulated in an optical waveguide physics-based model with Au-incorporated dielectric matrix oxides deposited on the fiber tip. Preliminary results of modeling the temperature response using end-coated reflection fiber probes are discussed.
In recent years, optical fiber sensing has emerged as an attractive technology for spatially and temporally distributed monitoring of various types of infrastructure, including pipelines. This technology can provide information such as distributed temperature, corrosion, acoustic, strain, and even vibrations which can be used in real-time monitoring of operational processes or to identify early signatures of impending faults or failures. In this paper, we successfully demonstrate the installation of fiber optic cable inside a pipeline using a long-distance robotic Fiber Optic Deployment Tool (FODT). The FODT is a self-contained semiautonomous robotic device that can propel in a range of pipe diameters to install a fiber optic cable inside the pipeline. It can be controlled remotely, and the current version offers a maximum installation speed of 15 feet/minute. In this demonstration, a distributed fiber cable was installed in a 50’ long, 8.25″ inner diameter steel pipe. The proposed FODT, when combined with distributed sensing, will be an attractive and promising technology for monitoring of oil and gas, water pipelines, and the structural health of pipeline rehabilitation systems.
In this paper, we demonstrated a fiber acoustic sensor based on a single-mode–multimode–single-mode (SMS) fiber structure. The SMS fiber structure consists of a multimode fiber (MMF) sandwiched between two single-mode fibers (SMFs). Whenever the MMF fiber experiences vibration disturbances, the fiber experiences tensile and compressive strains. By demodulating the vibration-induced intensity fluctuations, the vibrations signals can be quantified. Through employing several SMS sensors in parallel and connecting, and controlling by an optical switch, quasi-distributed sensing can be realized. The proposed sensor system is demonstrated in a laboratory environment and has the capability of detecting a wide range of vibration frequencies from 10 Hz to 400 kHz. In addition, the fiber sensor system is field-tested, where several SMS fiber sensors are mounted on 8.5” diameter steel pipe and excite acoustic emissions based on a magnetostrictive guided wave collar system. The proposed highly sensitive fiber sensor can be potentially used in practical applications of pipeline health condition monitoring.
In this paper, we demonstrate a fading noise reduction in the phase-optical time domain reflectometry (Φ-OTDR) based on a wavelength diversity technique. In the proposed wavelength diversity technique, multiple wavelengths are injected into the sensing fiber, while the wavelength selective time delay is induced to avoid the temporal overlapping. The proofof- concept experimentally demonstrated with three pump wavelengths in the proposed system using a 2 km sensing fiber with 1 m spatial resolution. In the proposed wavelength diversity Φ-OTDR system, the amplitude standard deviations are significantly minimized, thus reduced fading errors. At the end of the 2 km, the vibration frequencies from 100 Hz to 10 kHz are demonstrated. In addition, a simple, low-cost self-mixing demodulation technique has been employed in a proposed wavelength diversity Φ-OTDR system to eliminate the frequency offset between the electrical local oscillator and the beat signal. The proposed fading noise-free system will be attractive for practical applications such as oil and gas pipeline monitoring.
We demonstrate a novel probabilistic Brillouin frequency shift (BFS) estimation framework for both Brillouin gain and phase spectrums of vector Brillouin optical time-domain analysis (BOTDA). The BFS profile is retrieved along the fiber distance by processing the measured gain and phase spectrums using a probabilistic deep neural network (PDNN). The PDNN enables the prediction of the BFS along with its confidence intervals. We compare the predictions obtained from the proposed PDNN with the conventional curve fitting and evaluate the BFS uncertainty and data processing time for both methods. The Brillouin phase spectrum generally provides a better measurement accuracy with reduced measurement time in comparison to the Brillouin gain spectrum-based measurement, for an equal signal-to-noise ratio and linewidth. The proposed method is demonstrated using a 25 km sensing fiber with 1 m spatial resolution. The PDNN based signal processing of the vector BOTDA system provides a pathway to enhance the BOTDA system performance.
Monitoring carbon dioxide (CO2) for carbon capture, gas pipelines, and storage as well as early detection of CO2 leakage is important to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and have a high atmospheric concentration for a long lifetime. Moreover, the main cause of the corrosion in natural gas pipelines is owed by CO2. Therefore, real-time and effective CO2 monitoring is essential to improve efficiency, reduce pipeline emissions, and improve the economics of the natural gas industry. In this paper, we propose and experimentally demonstrate a distributed CO2 sensor based on the measurement of evanescent wave absorption by using optical frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR). A coreless fiber is re-coated with tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) through a dip-coating process with well-defined fabrication conditions. Rayleigh scattering OFDR system is optimized to provide high spatial resolution and large dynamic range to trace gas detection. The proposed distributed fiber gas sensor exhibits continuous real-time measurement of CO2 gas concentrations from 5% to 100% calibrated with nitrogen (N2) as a background gas. The results provide confidence that the proposed sensing technology represents a novel paradigm and holds a potential tool for the early detection of CO2 leaks with high sensitivity in a distributed fashion.
Methane is a major composition of natural gas and considered as a primary greenhouse gas of high global warming potential. In addition, it is also a hazardous flammable gas turns out to be highly explosive if its concentration level reaches 5 to 15 percent by volume. Carbon dioxide is another significant gas since CO2 corrosion is the most common cause of corrosion in natural gas pipelines. Long distance cost-effective CH4 and CO2 distributed sensing technologies for monitoring natural gas infrastructure are not yet readily available, and early corrosion on-set and low-level methane leak detection is highly desirable that can strengthen the integrity and operational reliability, improve the efficiency, and reduce pipeline emissions, which all advance the economics of natural gas delivery. In this work, two types of gas sensing materials, porous silica and hybrid polymer/metal-organic framework (MOF), are investigated based on evanescent wave absorption sensors consisting of a coreless fiber spliced between two single-mode fibers. The low-loss, low refractive index porous silica and the polymer/MOF material with an improved gas adsorption capability and CH4/CO2 selectivity prepared by the sol-gel dip-coating method are respectively used as coating applied to the surface of the coreless fiber. The effects of optical and morphological properties on the repeatability and sensitivity of fiber-optic evanescent wave sensors are studied from transmittance and reflectance measurements by utilizing laser diodes operating at CH4 and CO2 absorption lines. Distributed fiber gas sensing can benefit from the enhanced evanescent wave light scattering in the porous materials.
The sensing range of Brillouin optical time-domain analysis (BOTDA) is typically restricted to tens of kilometers by the fiber attenuation, pump depletion, and unwanted nonlinear effects. It limits the use of BOTDA in applications such as oil and gas pipeline monitoring that requires a sensing range up to hundreds of kilometers. In this work, a Raman amplification technique and a differential pulse-width pair (DPP) technique are employed to achieve high spatial resolution and long distance measurement. The Raman amplification technique involves three Raman pump configurations such as forward/backward and bi-directional pump with respect to different Brillouin pump pulses. Variations in pump and probe power, Raman propagation direction and injection location are explored to allow full control over signal amplification in any particular section of the total sensing fiber length. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for a certain location along the length of the fiber can be enhanced to provide more useful localized information. In addition, a novel fitting algorithm based on artificial neural networks (ANNs) for Brillouin scattering spectrum is proposed for the estimation of Brillouin frequency shift with high accuracy. It is experimentally demonstrated for a sensing range of 100 km with a spatial resolution of 1 m and ANN based novel fitting algorithm.
In this paper, the phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometry (Φ-OTDR) system is experimentally demonstrated using a Rayleigh enhanced AcoustiSens optical fiber to improve the acoustic sensing performance. The AcoustiSens optical fiber made of continuous gratings over the fiber, which significantly enhances the backscattered signal by 15 dB compared to the standard single-mode silica fiber. In addition, a simple and cost-effective self-mixing demodulation technique has been employed in coherent Φ-OTDR system to eliminate the frequency offset between the electrical local oscillator and the beat signal. The acoustic sensing performance with various acoustic frequencies are experimentally demonstrated in the proposed system using a 2 km sensing fiber with 1 m spatial resolution.
The sensing range of Brillouin distributed fiber sensors (BDFS) is typically in the order of tens of kilometers due to the attenuation of the optical fiber and restricted input pump power. This limits the use of BDFS in certain long range applications such as oil and gas pipeline monitoring; where maintenance and safety monitoring requires sensing lengths up to hundreds of kilometers. This deterioration in the sensing performance cannot be counteracted by indefinitely increasing the pump power injected into the sensing fiber; as nonlinear effects such as modulation instability, self-phase modulation, and significant pump depletion occurs within the sensing fiber. In this paper, we demonstrate an extended sensing range system for pipeline monitoring using Brillouin optical time domain reflectometry (BOTDR) combined with Raman amplification and inline erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA). Variations in pump light power, propagation direction, and injection location are explored to allow full control over the signal amplification in any particular section of the total sensing fiber length. Thus, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for a certain location along the length of the fiber can be enhanced to provide more useful localized information. By using a continuous wave 1480nm Raman laser, and 980nm-pumped inline EDFA, the proposed system is theoretically validated over 150 km sensing fiber.
KEYWORDS: Raman spectroscopy, Signal to noise ratio, Spatial resolution, Signal detection, Roads, Scattering, Signal attenuation, Receivers, Sensors, Modulation
This paper proposes a new vector Brillouin optical time-domain analysis optical fiber sensor with large dynamic range and high signal-to-noise ratio that combines distributed Raman amplification with optical pulse coding. The optimized Raman pumping configurations are numerically simulated by solving the coupled differential equations of the hybrid Brillouin-Raman process, and experimentally investigated with respect to the Brillouin pump pulse. A vector network analyzer is adopted to extract both the amplitude and phase spectrograms of the Brillouin interaction in a distributed fashion which effectively lessens the impact of the Raman relative intensity noise transfer problem and achieve high accuracy measurement over a long sensing distance. Advanced pulse coding is further introduced to increase the sensing range under high spatial resolution. Initial experimental results of phase and amplitude from a custom built BOTDA system is presented. Compared to typically tens of kilometers measurement distance of conventional Brillouin optical time-domain analysis techniques, the proposed optical fiber Brillouin sensor has the potential to greatly enhances sensing range up to one hundred kilometers or greater, providing distributed temperature and strain monitoring of high spatial resolution and high sensing resolution in structures such as oil and natural gas pipelines.
In this paper, a novel technique was proposed to improve the sensing performance by employing wavelength diversity in Brillouin optical time domain reflectometry (BOTDR). This technique enables to maximize the launch pump power to achieve a higher measurement accuracy, without activating the nonlinear effects, which limit the conventional BOTDR performance. Experimentally, we have demonstrated the proposed technique, that provides measurement accuracy improvement of 3.6 times at far end of the sensing fibre compared to the conventional BOTDR system.
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