The subject matter of this presentation is to demonstrate the engineering applications of holographic optical elements
(HOEs) fabricated in dichromated gelatin (DCG) films exhibiting enhanced properties. The composition, structure and
the physical, chemical and optical properties of the DCG-film are briefly described in the introduction that is followed by
detailed discussion of the developing processes used to achieve the necessary holographic characteristics required by the
various applications. Other procedures are used to achieve explicit objectives, e.g., controlling the spectral characteristics
of the HOE by inorganic and/or organic additives and using filler material to enhance the UV or IR performance. Stress
induced by environmental forces, e.g., wind, or by mechanical strain also changes the performance of the HOE and may
be exploited in engineering applications. The optical characteristics of the HOE are also modified by internally induced
stress, such as changing the water content of the polymer or using cross-linking agents to modify and harden the gelatin
matrix. The formation of thermal or density gradients in the gelatin film during the coating process or at some stage of
the hologram development have also an effect on the holographic properties for they determine the conformational state
and the mechanical strength of the gelatin film. The ratio between the coiled and the helical structures in the gelatin
matrix determines the optical and mechanical properties of the holographic film. Multiple exposures are used to record
up to four holograms in single DCG film that are used to reconstruct concurrently several monochrome or RGB beams.
The subject matter of this presentation is to review the results of a research program whose objective is the development of a technology for the serial manufacturing of high efficiency HOE (Holographic Optical Elements) with predetermined spectral characteristics and angular selectivity with apertures ranging from few square millimeters to square meters. The developed technology includes the machine fabrication of precision holographic films (2 to 50 micron thickness) on glass or plastic substrata and chemically and thermally adapted hologram development processes. The desired optical properties of the holographic material for a specific technical application are preset during the making of the film and are modified during the exposure and the development of the HOE.
The objective of this research program was the development of the technology for the industrial manufacturing of high
efficiency holographic optical elements (HOEs) with predetermined spectral characteristics ranging in format from few
square millimeters to square meters. The desired optical properties of holographic materials for specific engineering
applications are determined during the making of the film and are modified during the exposure, the development and
the post-treatment of the HOE. This technology includes the machine fabrication of precision holographic films with 1 to
50 micron thickness on glass or plastic substrata, the use of filler material to modify the spectral characteristics of HOEs,
multiple exposure techniques, contact-copying procedures and chemically and thermally adapted hologram development
and post-treatment processes. The technology extends the use of dichromated gelatin (DCG) into the blue and infrared
spectral domains and is a viable tool in the control of the holographic properties of the manufactured HOEs. The
usefulness of the technology is illustrated with results obtained from existing HOE installations. Design and performance
information is presented for manufactured reflection and transmission HOEs that are used in a variety of technical
applications, such as: holographic concentrators for photo-voltaic and thermal energy conversion, special collectors for
solar photo-chemistry, holographic stacks for day-lighting, glazing and shading in buildings, optical interconnects in
multi-chip modules, robotic sensors and holographic beam forming optics for LED applications. Multiple exposures
technique is used to record up to four holograms in the same DCG film that are used to generate simultaneously several
monochrome or RGB beams.
The objective of this research program was the development of a technology for the industrial manufacturing of high
efficiency HOE (Holographic Optical Elements) with predetermined spectral characteristics and angular selectivity
ranging in format from few square millimeters to square meters. The developed technology includes the machine
fabrication of precision holographic films (2 to 30 micron thickness) on glass or plastic substrata, and chemically and
thermally adapted hologram development processes. The desired optical properties of the holographic material for a
specific technical application are determined during the making of the film and are modified during the exposure and the
development of the HOE. This is achieved through the use of filler material to swell or shrink the hologram and a
specific development process to fix the desired spectral properties of the film. The developed technology extends the
applicability of dichromated gelatin ( DCG) into the blue and infrared spectral domains. The effects of the holographic
layer deposition and of the development process on the holographic properties are illustrated with electron-microscope
photographs of the cross section of the hologram. The photographs reveal the presence of the nano-size voids that are
generated during the hologram processing. These voids are regarded as the cause for bandwidth enlargement of the HOE.
The objective of this research program is the development of the technology for the industrial fabrication of large format holographic optical elements (HOEs) with predetermined spectral characteristics and angular selectivity. HOEs of this type are used in a variety of technical applications, such as: holographic concentrators for photo-voltaic energy conversion and solar photo- chemistry or as integrated holographic stacks compromising several holograms operating in different ranges of the solar spectrum for daylighting, glazing and shading in buildings. The latter are required for the effective control of the transmission of solar radiation through the windows or the glass curtain wall envelopes of buildings. The HOEs (reflective or transmissive) are recorded in dichromated gelatin layers deposited on glass or plastic substrates. This material and the corresponding thermochemical development process facilitate the achievement of bandwidths, spectral ranges and angular selectivity that match accurately the design spectral and geometrical properties of a particular application.
The subject matter of this report is the development and test of a technology for the industrial manufacturing of large format holographic optical elements (HOEs) for technical applications that facilitates the choice of an operating wavelength between UV and IR and the selection of a desired bandwidth that may vary between tens and hundreds of nanometers. Such requirements are essential for the fabrication of spectrally selective holographic lenses and mirrors for use in photovoltaics and solar chemistry. Large format HOEs are also finding increased application as facade elements in the control of radiant energy in buildings. Data is presented illustrating the methods used to control the shift of the operating wavelength and to adjust the bandwidth of the HOE. These methods are based on the understanding of the structure and properties of the DCG holographic material. For example, the recording of holograms for the blue part of the spectrum requires the use of a filler material to swell the hologram and a specific development process to shrink it subsequently to the desired thickness of the layer. Thus, the required filler material should have the same optical properties as the DCG and should be water soluble. The material should be optically neutral and play no more than a passive role as padding in the hologram fabrication process. A similar technique, based on the permanent swelling of the hologram, is used to shift the operating wavelength of a reflective hologram into the IR and to modify its bandwidth.
The objective of this research program was the development of the technology for the industrial manufacturing of HOEs for technical applications such as: holographic solar concentrators for utilization in photovoltaic energy conversion and solar photochemistry, and integrated holographic stacks for daylighting, glazing and shading in buildings. Some of the fabricated HOEs exhibit apertures in the order of 8 square meters. The accomplished technology facilitates the continuous fabrication of the holographic films on glass or plastic substrata. The standard holographic material we use for the fabrication of HOEs is dichromated gelatin (DCG) on glass or plastic film (PET) substrata. The dichromated gelatin layer could be prepared with different compositions to accommodate the desired exposures and chemical processing procedures. At present we manufacture holographic plates on glass substrata in sizes of up to 1 meter square. The holographic film on plastic substratum is 20 cm wide and could be made in lengths of hundredths of meters. The inexpensive fabrication of such large formats is attained by automation of the entire process: film manufacturing, hologram copying, development and test. We present in this paper the design considerations and the developed manufacturing procedures. These comprise the fabrication of large format reflective holograms for concentrating mirrors and the copying of transmissive holograms, such as gratings and lenses, using in-plane contact copying in checkerboard arrangement or rotating drum continuous copying onto an endless plastic film.
The optical properties of dichromated gelatin (DCG) as a material for volume holography are close to ideal. The material shows large refractive index modulation, high spatial resolution, negligible absorption, and low scattering. The inexpensive fabrication of large format HOEs is attained by automation of the entire process - film manufacturing, hologram copying, that the master hologram is extremely thin and consists of the holographic layer only. DCG layers, however, can not be easily lifted from the glass or plastic substratum. It is possible to achieve this objective by using other materials. As an alternative to gelatin we investigated the holographic properties of materials that contain hydroxyl, carboxyl or carbonyl groups. The investigated materials are: poly(vinyl alcohol) PVA, poly(acrylic acid) PAA and mixtures of these, such as PVA/PAA and chemically modified cPVA. The subject matter of this paper is the comprehensive presentation of the result of the experimental investigation of the holographic properties of the above introduced materials and their comparison to the properties of DCG holographic films. This comparison includes, but is not limited to the diffraction efficiency, grating strength and the transmission characteristics of the films.
The performance of a holographic product for commercial applications depends uniquely on the properties of the material and the skills of the manufacturer to best use and optimize these properties in the design stage and during the various manufacturing steps. The design of the HOE should take into account divers changes in the material that are caused by the process, such as swelling or shrinking of the holographic film, since these determine the spectral characteristics of the HOE. Often the changes are intentionally induced to achieve certain hologram properties, such as wavelength shift of the range of operation, the dependence of the diffraction efficiency on the reconstruction angle, or the desire to influence specific diffraction orders. We report here the results from the evaluation of the holographic properties of HOE in dichromated gelatin. These effects lead to the establishment of force fields and material diffusion throughout the depth of the holographic layer and create a gradient of the mean index of refraction that produces a shift in the angular spectrum. Experimental result for holograms fabricated in DCG and carboxylic polyvinyl alcohol are present and discussed. We report on the development and completion of a facility for continuous layer deposition on plastic substrate, hologram exposure and development.
Dichromated gelatin (DCG) is a commonly used material for recording holographic optical elements. DCG has good optical properties as for example low scattering and high resolution. A photochemical effect causes a change of the refractive index after exposure and development of the DCG- layer. An important parameter for the holographic properties of the DCG-layer, e.g. maximum attainable modulation of the refractive index and swelling of the layer after development, is the concentration of dichromate in the DCG- layer. A further advantage of DCG is the attainable high modulation of the refractive index. In this paper we present experimental results, which give the maximum modulation of the refractive index and the swelling of the DCG-layer as a function of the concentration of dichromate. The results are obtained by analyzing volume phase gratings. The 'coupled wave theory' of Kogelnik gives a formal connection between the modulation of the refractive index and the diffraction efficiency of volume phase gratings. The latter is determined by analyzing the dependance of the diffraction efficiency on reconstruction angle. The exposure energy was varied to attain the maximum modulation of the refractive index for every dichromate concentration. The angular deviation of the Bragg-angle compared with the recording parameters yields the swelling of the DCG-layer. The diffraction gratings were recorded with a holographic copying process. the knowledge of these dependencies is necessary to facilitate optimization of the DCG-layer for different applications of holographic optical elements.
This paper deals with frequency modulation radar ranging principles applied to an incoherent multi channel fiber optical laser radar (ladar) system. The amplitude of the power output of a semiconductor laser beam is linearly frequency modulated (chirp). The laser beam is guided into an optical fiber and then splitted in as many channels as needed. The light leaving the fibers illuminates the objects under surveillance. The backscattered light from the objects is coupled back into the fibers, guided to a single photo detector diode and converted to an electrical signal. Mixing this signal with a reference yields a new signal that includes explicitly the distance information in it's frequency components. The basic analysis techniques of this system are derived from estimation theory. Frequency as well as phase of the mixed signal are used to extract distance information. It is shown that the additional information in the phase of the signal lowers the variance of distance measurements.
A plasmon surface wave is excited in a thin metallic layer on a dielectric, if the layer is illuminated at an incident angle larger than the critical angle of total reflection. At certain resonance angles, the major part of the incident energy is coupled into the surface wave and the total reflection is attenuated. We probed the resonance peak with a spectrum of incident waves and detected the reflected energy at two incident angles near the resonance peak simultaneously. The ratio of he detected energies is a function of the incident angle, thus facilitating angular measurements. First experimental results indicate a resolution better than 0.001 degrees in a measuring range of 1 degree.
Dichromated gelatin layers (DCG) facilitate the design and fabrication of large format holographic optical elements (HOE) of high optical quality and diffraction efficiency. The HOEs are used for the fabrication of spectrally selective solar concentrators and as glazing materials for daylighting and passive sun control in buildings. The suitability of HOEs in these applications depends upon the achievable bandwidth, operating central wavelength, dispersion characteristics and low absorption losses. The HOEs are fabricated on glass or plastic film substrata in a DCG-layer of 5 to 30 micrometer thickness. The layer thickness and the gradient ar precisely controlled during the layer deposition and drying (plus or minus 1 micrometer and 0.1 micrometer/cm for standard layer of 10 micrometer thickness). The production process is based on the fabrication of high quality master holograms that are copied by dry copying procedure. The current manufacturing facilities allow the fabrication of 1 m2 HOEs on glass substratum and a continuous production of HOEs on plastic substratum with a width of 20 cm and length of 50 m. This technology is also used to fabricate holograms for instrumentation optics in metrology and for optical interconnects in multichip modules. The fabricated HOEs exhibit the desired operational characteristics: high diffraction efficiency, small Braggshift, large bandwidth and a central wavelength that may be freely selected over a wide spectral range. In this paper, we present the results from the experimental investigation and theoretical analysis of large number of holograms of the transmissive and reflective types. We discuss the attained angular and wavelength spectra, bandwidths, wavelength shifts and the diffraction efficiencies as functions of the holographic parameters. The HOEs are made for technical applications and are designed to operate in the 300 nm - 1500 m spectral range.
Holograms in dichromated gelatin (DCG) are of potential interest in many technical sectors. The current technology facilitates the manufacturing of large format (1 m2) holographic optical elements (HOE) operating between 400 nm and 2000 nm for various applications: photovoltaic two color solar concentrators, holographic stacks for daylighting and wideband passive shading devices for sun control, as well as spectrally matched concentrators for solar chemistry. For all these applications the optical properties of the HOEs have to be controlled carefully. By precise control of all the necessary manufacturing steps this can be achieved. The developing process has an high impact upon the optical properties of the HOE. Therefore, an excellent knowledge of the effect of the process on the inner structure of the gelatin is essential for achieving the desired optical properties. In this paper we describe the influence of the different developing baths and of the exposure energy on the inner structure of holograms in DCG. With increasing dehydration speed the swelling gradient becomes larger leading to broader reflection holograms and to asymmetric angular spectra of transmission gratings. With increasing exposure energy saturation of the refractive index modulation is attained. Higher exposure energies lead to a deformation of the refractive index profile and even `thick' transmission gratings exhibit higher diffraction orders with significant efficiencies. Models for the deformation of the refractive index profile and for inhomogeneous swelling across the layer of transmission holograms are presented. Theoretical simulations are compared to experiments and show excellent agreement.
Large format holograms are of potential interest to the energy and building sectors. Such holograms are considered as present for photovoltaic power generation and for daylighting or glazing in buildings. Dichromated gelatin exhibits properties that are nearly ideal for these applications. Both sectors require large format holograms with accurately controlled properties, such as: spectral bandwidth, operating wavelength and diffraction efficiency. The required properties are attained by exactly controlling the thickness of the gelatin layer and the refractive index variation over the entire aperture as a function of layer depth. The information presented in this paper is based on ten years' efforts that includes layer deposition and film drying techniques with controlled thickness, development process and an inexpensive dry copying procedure for the industrial fabrication of the holograms on a flexible film substratum. Design criteria and experimental results for large format holographic gratings, lenses and mirrors are presented and discussed. The current technology facilitates the manufacturing of HOEs that operate between 400 nm and 1500 nm in various applications: photovoltaic solar concentrators for multicolor operation, hybrid collectors for simultaneous thermal and PV application, holographic stacks for white light (RGB) daylighting and wideband sun shading and holographic concentrators with spectral bandwidths that are adapted to particular photochemical reactions for solar chemistry.
In this paper we present the results in the development of large format (20 cm by 50 cm) cylindrical holographic mirrors (CHMs) recorded in dichromated gelatin, for use in solar chemistry applications. The realized spectral reflectivity of 400 - 440 nm is adapted to the sensitizer zinctetra-phenylporphine. Effective efficiency of the mirror (i.e. referred to the incident radiation at the desired wavelength of 420 nm) is 75% with excellent homogeneity across the aperture.
Large scale holograms of the reflective type are applied on concentrating devices for photovoltaics and solar chemistry as well as in building applications. Especially in window applications holograms with best homogeneity in large scale are demanded by the house owners and architects. To meet this demand, we have used a scanning laser beam and internal total reflections in a moving prism for recording. This technique is usually applied to record holograms for the near infrared (NIR), but due to controlled mixture of gelatine and water-soluble polymer in addition with a matched thermo-chemical treatment the central wavelength can be adjusted in a wide range to special requirements. For application in solar chemistry we manufactured parabolic concentrators with holographic foils of size 50 cm by 10 cm in dichromated gelatine (DCG). The central wavelengths can be chosen between 400 nm and 600 nm with bandwidths of 50 nm as well as up to 200 nm. The comparison of the transmitted and reflected spectrum shows good agreement and consequently minimal scattering losses of the layer. A photovoltaic concentrator concept uses a silicon solar cell and a spectrally matched broad band spectral characteristic is required. A bandwidth of 600 nm can be achieved with a stack of two foil or even a single foil. Large scale e investigations (up to 100 cm by 10 cm)2 show best results of diffraction efficiency and large scale homogeneity.
An implementation of an optical distance measuring system by commercially available electro-optical products was tested experimentally. The system utilizes the spatial dependence of the intensity distribution in an astigmatic focus of a lens system on the distance from the latter. The system can either be used for fast distance measurements with a resolution of 1 in 500 or alternatively for position control with sub-micron resolution. The spatial intensity distribution was determined utilizing a four-quadrant silicon detector. The amplified signal was digitized and read into a PC for evaluation. A holographic lens was used as astigmatic element. A holographic lens has the advantage of easy control of the astigmatisms and the possibility of rescaling to suit the designed measuring range. Furthermore, a holographic lens can be used in an off axis arrangement with simultaneous suppression of comatic aberrations. The best recording geometry for the holographic lens was found by computer simulation. The four quadrants of the detector are arranged such that two detector elements are illustrated by either of the two astigmatic line foci. The detector was moved through the focal region. The intensity is shifted from one quadrant pair in the first focal plane to all detectors in the lane of least confusion and finally to the other quadrant pair in the second focal plane. The difference of the photo currents of the quadrant pairs is a measure for the distance from the holographic lens.
A setup for the detection and classification of inhomogeneities (scatterers) in and on transparent films is described. The setup involves the illumination of the film by a laser light sheet. The light scattered off the film is imaged onto two linear CCD arrays. The polarization of the illuminating laser is circular and the two orthogonal linear components are filtered in front of the two CCD arrays. The CCD arrays detect the hh- and the vv-components of the scattered light, as cross-polarized scattering can be neglected. It is shown that the ratio of these two components depends for certain scattering angles on the type of scatterer. The aim of the investigations was to distinguish between dust and bubbles, the two major fault sources in thin gelatin films, the typical substratum for photographic and holographic films. The system was tested with hollow glass spheres and ragweed pollen as test scatterers. The hollow spheres behave as bubbles in the gelatin film Pollen were chosen to represent organic particles. The experimental results prove the validity of the assumed method and show an adequate characterization of the two types of scatterers provided they are at the surface of the investigated film. Statistical analysis of the experimental data show that the characterization quality is diminished if the scatterers are embedded in a gelatin layer, as not all scattering angles are observable due to total internal reflection of the scattered light.
The precise knowledge of the mean refractive index and the thickness of holographic films is important in applications such as polarization-sensitive holographic optical elements or substrate-mode holography. We present results of the measurements of the mean refractive index and the thickness of dichromated gelatin films before exposure, uniformly exposed films, and holograms. The measurements are based on the thin film resonance method. The interference between the two waves reflected at the air-film surface and the film-substrate interface modulates the reflectivity of the holographic film as a function of the angle of incidence. The frequency and the amplitude of this modulation are analyzed in order to determine the optical parameters. With the measured mean refractive index and the thickness as input we simulated the angular response of volume gratings and compared the results of the modelling with experimental data. The excellent agreement between the simulated and measured diffraction efficiencies confirm the applicability of the method to holographic films.
Scanning objects in an extended scene or large architectural structures, such as buildings, is an essential task used in numerous applications. In this paper we present the concept of a chirped laser radar with a range of 100 m and a design resolution of 3(DOT)10-5 that exhibits an optoelectronic signal processing. The scanning signal is a 1 microsecond(s) long chirped pulse with 100 MHz bandwidth and is centered at 300 MHz. This signal is generated by a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) that is driven by a direct digital synthesizer (DDS). The requirements imposed on the quality of the chirped signal are very high. These include temperature stabilization of the VCO and a programmed correct of its non-linear frequency response. The DDS facilitates the generation of a clean signal of the desired quality. The return signal is analyzed via an optoelectronic signal processor that measures the time delay between the target signal and the reference signal. The optoelectronic signal processor consists of two Bragg-cells and has two different output channels. Both channels evaluate the time delay of the two signals from the compressed pulses. In this paper we present the evaluation of the first channel, that measures this delay as a function of time. First experimental results indicate that the signal analysis of this channel gives a resolution of 5(DOT)10-4. The evaluation of the second channel is not entirely completed yet. We present experimental results achieved with the radar using a single laser diode, which is intensity modulated by variation of the diode current, and scanning of co-operative targets.
KEYWORDS: Refractive index, Liquids, Refraction, Water, Temperature metrology, Ray tracing, Light scattering, Scattering, Spherical lenses, Process control
Recently a new method for temperature measurement of droplets was presented. This method determines the index of refraction of a spherical scatterer with high accuracy and utilizes the dependence of the index of refraction on the temperature to finally determine the temperature. In this paper we show that the method is likewise applicable to cylindrical scatterers with a homogeneous refractive index distribution, like liquid jets. The method can be used to optically determine the temperature of a liquid jet, or to measure other properties of the liquid that influence the index of refraction of that liquid. One such property is the concentration of one liquid in another, like that of glycerol in an aqueous solution, which was studied experimentally for assessing some properties of the proposed method. An estimation of the sensitivity of the method was gained by detecting temperature changes of a cylindrical water jet.
A holographic measurement system was combined with digital image processing for the investigation of droplet velocity and number density in the injection spray of a model diesel engine. The model engine consisted of a conventional injection pump and a test chamber that could be operated at high pressure and temperature to simulate the conditions in an operating diesel engine. The holographic images were reconstructed and fed into a PC by means of a CCD camera. Up to 30 image sections are necessary to store the information of a whole hologram. The software developed for the segmentation of the droplets and the determination of the droplet velocity is presented.
A novel tactile sensor that utilizes the deformation of a holographic membrane is presented. The deformation changes the diffraction efficiency which results in an intensity coded signal that can be measured very precisely. In this paper we present the principle, the experimental set-up, and the mode of operation of the sensor. The aim of this research is to construct a prototype sensor with an array of 8 X 8 taxels each 1.5 X 1.5 mm2 in size. The total area of the sensor is about 1.5 cm2. The sensitivity of each taxel is 0.01 N with an operating range of 10 N. The final tactile sensor consists of the following components: a holographic membrane (the actual sensor element), a stiff support defining the grasping plane and a thin film that transmits the grasping forces. To determine the deformation a laser diode illuminates the holographic sensor membrane and a CCD detects the non-diffracted light.
Scanning objects in an extended scene or large architectural structures, such as buildings, is an essential task used in
numemus applications. In this paper we present the concept of a chirped laser radar with a range of 100 m and a design
resolution of 3•iO that exhibits an optoelectronic signal processing. The scanning signal is a 1 jis long chirped pulse with
100 MHz bandwidth and is centered at 300 MHz. This signal is generated by a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) that is
driven by a direct digital synthesizer (DDS). The requirements imposed on the quality of the chirped signal are very high.
These include temperature stabilization of the VCO and a programmed correction of its non-linear frequency response. The
DDS facilitates the generation of a clean signal of the desired quality. The return signal is analyzed via an optoelecironic
signal processor that measures the time delay between the target signal and the reference signal. The optoelectronic signal
processor consists of two Bragg-cells and has two different output channels. Both channels evaluate the time delay of the two
signals from the compressed pulses. In this paper we present the evaluation of the first channel, that measures this delay as a
function of time. First experimental results indicate that the signal analysis of this channel gives a resolution of 5 lO. The
evaluation of the second channel is not entirely completed yet. We present experimental results achieved with the radar using a
single laser diode, which is intensity modulated by variation of the diode current, and scaiining of co-operative targets.
Scanning objects in an extended scene or large architectural structures, i.e., building, bridges, etc., is an essential task for numerous applications. In this paper we present the concept of a chirped laser radar with a range of up to 100 m and a design resolution of 3 (DOT) 10-5 realized with an optoelectronic signal processor. The scanning signal is a 1 microsecond(s) long chirped pulse with 100 MHz bandwidth, centered at 300 MHz. This signal is generated by a voltage controlled oscillator that is driven by a direct digital synthesizer (DDS). The DDS facilitates the generation of a signal of the required quality. We present the design concept of an external optronic modulator (OM) consisting of two Bragg cells, capable of intensity modulation of incoherently superimposed laser radiation of different wavelengths. The properties of the chirp signal are used on the OM. The return signal is analyzed via an optoelectronic signal processor that measures the time delay between the target signal and the reference signal. The optoelectronic signal processor consists of two Bragg cells and has two different output channels. Both channels evaluate the time delay of the two signals from the compressed pulses. In this paper we present the evaluation of both channels. First experimental results indicate that the signal analysis gives a resolution of 5 (DOT) 10-4. The evaluation of the second channel is not entirely completed yet. We present experimental results achieved with the radar using a single laser diode, which is intensity modulated by variation of the diode current, and scanning of co-operative targets.
Holographic optical elements are utilized in daylighting systems as light directing elements. The holograms can be fabricated on thin foils which are laminated between glass panes. The function of the holograms is limited by dispersion. Especially for large angles of incidence only a small portion of the solar spectrum is diffracted by a single hologram. Thus the redirected sunlight changes color. In this paper we show how the color changes can be minimized by using a stack of volume holograms. Each hologram diffracts a different portion of the solar spectrum into the same direction. The diffracted waves are superimposed in order to generate white light according to the additive color theory. The case of two holograms operating in the blue and red portion of the visible spectrum is analyzed theoretically and realized experimentally. Measurements of the diffraction efficiency as a function of wavelength are presented for different angles of incidence. From these measurements the color performance and the angular sensitivity of the stack is inferred.
The dispersion of the solar radiation into different spectral bands which are focused onto spectrally matched solar cells improves the electric efficiency of photovoltaic collectors in comparison with conventional systems. Holographic lenses are able to disperse and to focus solar radiation at the same time. They may be reproduced from a master and are suitable for cheap mass production. The paper presents the fabrication and test of a 50 X 50 cm2 PV-concentrator composed of a stack of two holographic lens arrays. Each lens array consists of 49 single lenses of dimension 7 X 7 cm2. One array operates in the long wave spectral band, the other in the short wave range. The solar radiation is focused on spectrally matched solar cells of size 1 X 1 cm2.
In this paper we describe the spectral characteristics of transmission and reflection holograms in dichromated gelatin (DCG), and their dependence on process parameters. The aim of our research efforts was, to manufacture holograms with low absorption and scattering and well defined optical properties, as central wavelength, bandwidth, and refractive index modulation. Losses due to absorption and scattering can be minimized by employing inorganic hardeners. By means of process control it is possible to manufacture reflection grating holograms with bandwidths between 11 nm and well above 360 nm. It was found that the hardening time, exposure energy, dehydration temperature and initial layer thickness affect the bandwidth and central wavelength of reflection holograms strongly. The shift of the Bragg-angle of holographic transmission gratings depends on the pH- value of the swelling bath and was found to be lowest at pH 9.
A new method for the determination of the temperature of single droplets is presented. The method utilizes the analysis of the near field scattered light distribution. This distribution exhibits sharp peaks, the so-called glare points, if observed through a lens with finite aperture. The ratio of the brightnesses of the glare points of the zero and the first orders shows a monotonic dependence on the index of refraction. The ratio is measured and the temperature is calculated by means of the known dependence of the index of refraction on the temperature.
The commercial manufacturing of large format holographic optical elements (HOE) -- these are used in the fabrication of holographic solar concentrators or for daylighting applications in buildings -- requires inexpensive materials exhibiting high diffraction efficiency, bandwidth and controlled shift of the operating wavelength. Hence, the ideal recording material must possess adequate spectral sensitivity at the wavelengths of present day high power lasers and permit the desired shift of the operating wavelength by means of process control. The material should manifest a predictable diffraction efficiency as a function of the layer fabrication technique, of the exposure, and of the development process and display high spatial resolution and low noise. The properties of dichromated gelatin (DCG) as a recording material for volume holograms are close to ideal. It provides a large refractive index modulation, high resolution, negligible absorption, and low scattering. The holographic film is prepared in the laboratory and extensively tested. The processing of the film after exposure is a sequence of chemical reactions and physical treatments. We report in this paper our experience with large format DCG films on glass substrates and present the dependence of the holographic properties upon the layer preparation procedures and upon the exposure energy. The results for the film development and after-treatment are presented in a forthcoming paper.
The efficiency of photovoltaic generators that are based on different semiconductor materials with optimized band-gaps can achieve considerably higher values than those obtained from single junction devices, e.g. Si-based solar cells. Hence, the splitting of the solar spectrum for use with the different band-gap cells is a desired characteristic of the solar collector. An enhanced efficiency is realized with the concentration of the incident solar radiation onto the corresponding solar cell. The optical characteristics of the holographic solar concentrator satisfy these requirements. The undiffracted solar radiation should be collected by an absorber that also cools the solar cells. This is the concept of the hybrid collector for electricity and thermal utilization that is presented in this paper. It can achieve an electrical efficiency above 22% and a thermal efficiency of 35% with a temperature of 100 degree(s)C.
The function of holographic optical elements in daylighting applications is to redirect sunlight from the immediate window area into the rear of a room in order to illuminate the darker regions and to reduce glare. A prerequisite for the successful application of holograms in daylighting systems is the solution of the problems of white light diffraction and of uniform holographic properties across a large aperture. This paper presents theoretical and experimental investigations of these two problems. It will be shown that white light diffraction is possible and that uniform diffraction efficiencies over large apertures are attainable.
The subject matter of this research project is to develop, manufacture and field test a spectrally dispersing solar collector system using a holographic solar concentrator in conjunction with spectrally matched advanced solar cells for photovoltaic power generation. The advantage of a holographic solar concentrator as compared to a conventional one is seen in the overall reduction of investment cost and in the possibility to generate inexpensive solar electric power. In this paper we present the techniques specifically developed for the design and manufacturing of efficient holographic optical elements and holographic lens stacks that are used in the fabrication of bandwidth matched solar concentrators for VIS and NIR photovoltaic operation. The lens stack separates the white light radiation into several spectral ranges that are focussed onto photocells possessing corresponding spectral characteristics. Contrary to previously published arrangements, we present here the concept and the design characteristics of a holographic concentrator that allows positioning of the cell in a plane parallel to the lens aperture. The initial idea of using two lenses recorded in the same aperture or same holographic layer focussing onto two off-axis foci proved to be of limited value due to the off-axis focussing that introduces strong reflection and aberration. Here we present a new concept in which the two lenses are shifted in the plane of the aperture so that each lens-cell configuration exhibits axial geometry. Both lenses are designed as axially corrected holographic stacks that include a lens and a correction grating. The design minimizes the cross coupling between the two holographic systems. Stack layouts for AlGaAs/GaAs and GaAs/Si combinations are discussed. Cross-coupling effects and aberrations involving the IR lens are minimized. Experimental diffraction efficiencies are fitted with non-cosinusoidal refractive index modulation showing best performance for 100 by 100 mm2 aperture. The theoretical predictions are compared with the first experimental results.
A holographic measurement system was used for the investigation of droplet size, density and velocity in the injection spray of a model diesel engine. The model engine consisted of a conventional injection pump and a test chamber that could be operated at high pressure and temperature to simulate the conditions in an operating diesel engine. The use of off-axis holography with a laser light sheet from a pulsed ruby laser helped to increase the maximum droplet density in the spray that could be resolved. Chromatic aberrations, introduced by the reconstruction of the holograms with a wavelength different from the recording wavelength, were minimized by careful choice of recording and reconstruction geometry. A new method for size determination was devised. The reconstructed images were recorded with a CCD camera and analyzed with the help of a personal computer. Software for automatic detection of 3-D particle position and velocity determination was developed.
Dichromated gelatin layers (DCG) facilitate the design and fabrication of large-format (1 m2) holographic optical elements (HOE) that exhibit high optical quality and diffraction efficiency. The subject matter of this report is the presentation of an optimized design and fabrication technique for the manufacturing of large-format diffractive optics. The emphasis is placed on the realization of homogeneous diffraction efficiency distribution across the aperture of the HOE. The nature of the holographic process requires precise control of the mechanical properties of the DCG layer such as moisture content, shrinking, swelling, hardness, and elasticity of the film, which specify the slant angle, the mean index of refraction, and the amplitude of the refractive index modulation. These properties ensure the attainment of the desired diffraction efficiency, bandwidth, and Bragg-shift. The results achieved in the development and fabrication of such layers are presented and their applicability as holographic solar concentrators is explained. The emphasis is also placed upon the development and realization of a novel copying technique for the batch reproduction and inexpensive manufacturing of large-format transmissive holograms that are used as focusing lenses in solar concentrators.
The applicability of holographic optical elements (HOE) in the IR depends upon the achievable bandwidth, operating central wavelength, dispersion characteristics, and transmissivity. Dichromated gelatin layers (DCG) are well suited for such applications because of their light weight, excellent optical quality, and high diffraction efficiency. The research efforts reported here are aimed at the realization and evaluation of dichromated gelatin films of very high optical quality, i.e., films with very low scattering losses and uniform layer thickness over the entire aperture that possess the capacity for large modulation of the refractive index. These properties ensure the attainment of the desired operational characteristics such as high diffraction efficiency, large bandwidth, and a central wavelength that may be freely selected over a wide spectral range. These objectives are achieved by means of precise control of the thickness of the holographic layer while maintaining simultaneously the capability to modify the refractive index modulation over a wide range. The required large modulation range of the refractive index is realized by means of precise control of the flow velocity and of the water evaporation rate during the drying of the film.The subsequent thermal after-treatment of the film permits the realization of an overall hardness that facilitates the attainment of the desired modulation characteristics.
Dichromated gelatin layers facilitate the design and fabrication of large format (1 m2) holographic optical elements (HOE) that exhibit high optical quality and diffraction efficiency. In this paper we present the results achieved in the development and fabrication of such layers and elucidate upon their applicability as holographic solar concentrators. The objective of this report is the presentation of the experience gained in the design and manufacturing of large format spectrally selective solar concentrators. The holographic lens diffracts the white sunlight into various spectral ranges outfitted with solar cells that have appropriately selected band gaps. The purpose of the holographic concentrator is the spectral and spatial separation of the incident solar radiation in order to achieve an improved overall conversion efficiency. A number of manufacturing techniques were especially developed for the design, optimization and fabrication of the specialized holographic concentrators. The HOEs needed for the construction of the integrated collector optics are: lenses and/or lens arrays and phase-correction plates. The HOES are designed by means of computer programs that facilitate the optimization of the recording geometry and provide information for the correction procedures needed for optimized performance. The HOEs are recorded in dichromated gelatin films (DCG) and are subsequently subjected to chemical and thermal treatment processes in order to promote the desired characteristics and suppress the undesired properties. These procedures guarantee the realization of HOEs with high diffraction efficiencies and low scattering losses. The optimized holographic process: exposure, development and after-treatment, was described explicitly in previous publications. The emphasis is placed on the development of a novel copying technique for the batch reproduction and manufacturing of large format holographic lenses for solar concentrators.
A novel copying technique specially developed for the batch reproduction and manufacturing of large format holographic optical elements (HOEs) which are used in the manufacturing of solar concentrators is presented. The HOEs are designed by means of computer programs that facilitate the optimization of the recording geometry for on-axis or off-axis operation. The HOEs are recorded in dichromated gelatin layers (DCG) and are subsequently subjected to chemical and thermal after-treatment processes in order to promote the desired characteristics and suppress the undesired properties. These 'master' holograms are used for the manufacturing of the copies. In this report, the technique developed for the reproduction of transmissive holograms, i.e. holographic lenses is discussed. the copying procedure requires that the master hologram generates an object wave that carries the information and a reference wave needed for the recording of this information. Since the master is placed in front of the copy during the reproduction process, the master must have 50% diffraction efficiency across the entire aperture. This requirement restrains the permissible variation of the exposure energy during the reproduction process to very narrow bounds. Usually, dichromated gelatin films exhibit a steep dependence of the diffraction efficiency with the exposure energy. Hence, a small variation of the intensity at a given point of the hologram may produce a very large change in the diffraction efficiency. The authors have developed a new method based on film properties control that facilitates the manufacturing of master holograms with 50% diffraction efficiency. The industrial fabrication of large-format
Dichromated gelatin layers facilitate the design and fabrication of holographic optical elements of high optical quality and diffraction efficiency. The research efforts are aimed at the development and evaluation of layer deposition techniques for the manufacturing of large format holograms in dichromated gelatin. The emphasis is placed on the realization of DCG films that exhibit low scattering losses and high modulation capacity. Such properties ensure the attainment of the desired diffraction efficiency, bandwidth and operation in the IR. These objectives are achieved by means of precise control of the thickness and of the hardness of the holographic film while maintaining the capability to modify the refractive index modulation over a wide range. The diffraction efficiency is a non-linear function of the grating strength, i.e. of the layer thickness, of the geometry, of the reconstruction wavelength and of the refractive index modulation. For a given geometry and constant layer thickness, it is the index of refraction modulation that determines the IR shift in the operating wavelength of the hologram. The desired film thickness of 10 tm is achieved by means of nozzle deposition and exhibits a thickness variation of ±1 um over the 1 m2 aperture. The high capacity for index of refraction variation is realized by means of precise control of the flow velocity and of the water evaporation rate during the drying of the film. The exposure duration, the development process and the subsequent thermal after-treatment of the film facilitate the attainment of the desired modulation characteristics for JR operation.
Techniques specifically developed for the design and manufacturing of specialized holographic optical elements (HOEs) that are used in the fabrication of integrated optical systems for laser- Doppler velocimetry (LDV) applications are presented. The specialized HOEs needed for the construction of an integrated LDV-optics are: beam-splitters, lenses and/or lens arrays, phase correction plates and the corresponding waveguide structures. The HOEs are designed by means of computer programs that facilitate the optimization of the recording geometry and provide information for the correction procedures needed for optimized performance. The HOEs are recorded in dichromated gelatin films and are subsequently subjected to chemical and thermal after-treatment. These procedures guarantee the realization of HOEs with high diffraction efficiency and low scattering losses. The optimized holographic process has been previously described. In this report we discuss the following specialized HOEs and their specific characteristics as required by the LDV applications.
Dichromated gelatin layers facilitate the design and fabrication of holographic optical elements of high optical quality and diffraction efficiency. The research efforts are aimed at the development and evaluation of layer deposition techniques for the manufacturing of large- format holograms in dichromated gelatin. The emphasis is placed on the realization of DCG films that exhibit low scattering losses, high thickness constancy over the entire aperture, and especially high modulation capacity. Such properties ensure the attainment of the desired diffraction efficiency, bandwidth, and Bragg-shift. These objectives are achieved by means of precise control of the thickness of the holographic layer while maintaining the capability to modify the refractive index modulation over a wide range. The diffraction efficiency is a nonlinear function of the grating strength, i.e., of the layer thickness, of the wavelength and of the refractive index modulation. The phase of the transmitted light depends upon the spatial distribution of these parameters. The desired thickness of 10 micrometers is achieved by means of nozzle deposition and shows a thickness variation of +/- 1 micrometers over the 1 m2 aperture. The high capacity for index of refraction variation is realized by means of precise control of the flow velocity and of the water evaporation rate during the drying of the film. The exposure duration, the development process, and the subsequent thermal after-treatment of the film facilitate the attainment of the desired modulation characteristics. At present, we have achieved 90% diffraction efficiency at 900 nm for transmissive holographic gratings recorded at 514 nm. This technique permitted the attainment of 96% diffraction efficiency at 650 nm (maximum of the solar spectrum) and a band-width of 400 nm. Holographic solar concentrators are fabricated at present in sizes up to 0.5 by 0.5 m. Current developments will facilitate the fabrication of 1 m2 holographic solar concentrators. The results of the theoretical analysis are compared with the experimental data.
Nonimaging holographic optical elements (HOEs) are currently utilized in head-up displays (HUDs) as combiner elements. The conventional HUD optics is limited in the field of view and in the display brightness. In some cases the performance of the HUD may be improved by the use of imaging (powered) HOEs. In this paper the basic features of the chromatic aberrations of powered HOEs are reviewed. The chromatic and geometric aberrations of the in-line geometry are discussed in detail. The authors show how to realize this geometry using high efficiency volume holograms. In the in-line geometry the diffraction efficiency of a holographic stack is less than 90. The image is always accompanied by a background of undiffracted light. The use of volume holograms enables the designer to maintain an effective in-line geometry while at the same time the image is separated from the background of undiffracted light. The in-line geometry exhibits the smallest chromatic and geometrical aberrations compared with the off-axis configuration.
In this paper we review ray optical and wave optical techniques to evaluate the performance of an imaging HOE at a shifted reconstruction wavelength. To demonstrate these techniques we give spot diagrams and plots of the intensity and phase distributions of the imaging wave in different planes behind the HOE.
In this paper we present and discuss new results concerning the dependence of the diffraction efficiency of holographic gratings on the state of polarization of the reconstruction wave. The results were obtained during the investigation of polarizing beam splitters manufactured in dichromated gelatin. The aim of this investigation was to fabricate holographic gratings of the transmissive and reflective types, which diffract the component polarized perpendicularly to the plane of incidence, whereas the parallel component will pass the hologram unaffected. Experimentally determined diffraction efficiencies for both types gratings are presented and discussed. The results are compared with the predictions from Kogelnik's theory.
Dichromated gelatin layers facilitate the design and fabrication of holographic optical elements (HOE) of high efficiency and quality. The research efforts are aimed at the development and evaluation of processes, such as exposure, film development and thermochemical after-treatment, which ensure the attainment of the desired diffraction efficiency, bandwidth and Bragg-shift. The emphasis is placed on the realization of homogeneous diffraction efficiency across the aperture of the HOE. These objectives are achieved by means of a precise control of the thickness of the holographic layer while maintaining simultaneously the capability to modify the refractive index modulation over a wide range. The diffraction efficiencies of transmissive and reflective gratings are unique functions of the state of polarization of the reconstruction wave. The transmissive and the reflective holographic gratings will diffract the perpendicularly polarized component while the parallel component will pass through the hologram without diffraction. Thus, holographic gratings of the transmissive and reflective types can serve as polarizing beamsplitters with an extinction ratio of 1000:1. The experimentally determined diffraction efficiencies show a departure from the predictions of Kogelnik's coupled wave theory.
The subject matter of this report is the presentation of an optimization technique developed for the design and manufacturing of a holographic lens solar concentrator. The emphasis is placed on the realization of a homogeneous diffraction efficiency distribution across the aperture of the holographic lens. The nature of the holographic process requires precise control of the mechanical properties of the gelatin layer such as moisture content, shrinking, swelling, hardness and elasticity, which specify the slant angle, the mean index of refraction, the spatial frequency and the amplitude of the refractive index variatrion. These parameters determine then uniquely the Bragg condition and the diffraction efficiency. The range of parameter variation is obtained from a large number of experimentally analyzed transmission gratings with spatial frequencies that are comparable to those expected across the aperture of the holographic lens
Inexpensive manufacturing of holographic optical elements (HOE) in dichromated gelatin may be achieved by means of replication using a master hologram. Such manufacturing will render large format holograms useful for the collection and concentration of solar radiation provided they cover large bandwidth. This paper discusses holographic mirrors that exhibit a bandwidth in excess of 100 nm.
The subject matter of this paper is the presentation of a new method for the determination of high frequency pressure fluctuations in a liquid. The objective is to perform this measurement without any significant disturbance of the fluid. This technique utilizes gas bubbles in a liquid and evaluates dynamically the laser light scattered by the bubbles. it should be emphasized, that this type of measurement requires the use of an insoluble gas. Hence, the size of the bubble depends on the fluid pressure and on the surface tension. Thus, changes in the fluid pressure cause bubble size variation and modulation of the scattered intensity. The corresponding frequency is thus a measure for the rate of growth of the bubble and provides direct information about the changes in the fluid pressure. The theoretical interpretation was tested in an experiment and compares well with experimental results. This technique could be of considerable importance to the study of cavitation, bubble implosion and other dynamic phenomena in fluids.
In this report we present the up-to-date knowledge acquired in the design and manufacturing of optimized holographic solar concentrators. The optimization procedure is based on ray-tracing analysis and generates information necessary for the manufacturing of a focus-correcting diffraction grating. The solar concentrator and the correction grating are pasted together and form an integrated optical element whose "blue-to-red" foci are located on the geometrical axis of the holographic solar concentrator.
In this report we present the experience gained in the controlled manipulation of dichromated gelatin layers used in holographic solar concentrators. The experimental investigation is aimed at the development of procedures leading to the improvement of their diffraction efficiency and bandwidth. Emphasis is placed on the un-derstanding of the phenomena controlling the spacing of the lamellar structure throughout the thickness of the gelatin layer. Controlling the spacing of the lamellae through the depth of the gelatin layer facilitates the enhancement of the bandwidth.
In this report we present the up-to-date knowledge acquired in the design and manufacturing of inexpensive, high efficiency, holographic optical elements (HOE) such as focusing lenses, beam-splitters, lens arrays and integrated holographic optics for specific technical applications. One such application is the development and manufacturing of an integrated Laser-Doppler optics which contains several HOE. The holograms are generated in dichromated gelatin layers and exhibit very high diffraction efficiencies (98%). The resulting Laser--Doppler measuring volume is characterized by excellent optical quality and high S/N ratio.
The objective of this report is the presentation of the experience gained in the experimental determination of the spatial correlations in a turbulent velocity field by means of an especially designed Laser-Doppler (LDV) holographic optics. The determination of the spatial velocity correlations requires the generation of two closely spaced LDV measuring volumes at specified positions. In conventional LDV optics this spacing is limited by the size of the optical components. The holographic optical elements (HOE) used in this work facilitate the positioning of the measuring volume at a spacing of 200 micrometers or better. Basic design considerations, the manufacturing of the holographic optics and the data acquisition are discussed.
In this presentation we report on the experience gained in the past year in the manufacturing of large, dielectric holograms for solar energy application. The experimental investigations were aimed at the solution of problems related to the large size (30 x 30 cm2) of the manufactured holographic optical elements such as the consistency of the film thickness and the mechanical stability of the optical set-up.
In this report, we present the experience gained up-to-date in the development of holographic solar concentrators. The techniques used in the generation of high efficiency dielectric volume-holograms of the transmission type are presented in detail. These techniques facilitate the manufacturing of holographic lenses with diffraction efficiency in the order of 97%. In order to achieve the high efficiency, the research team has developed sensitizing and film development procedures for dichromated layers whose scattering losses are comparable to those of the unexposed gelatin layer. The manufacturing of the dichromated gelatin layers is performed in-house (30 x 40 cm2) and can easily be extended to large apertures. The layering procedure is a continuous process and is limited at present only by the travel of the motor-driven table top. The reproducibility of the film-thickness for a batch of manufactured 30 x 40 cm2 holographic plates is better than ± 1 μm. The film-thickness variation of the gelatin film averaged over the entire surface of a holographic plate is in the order of 0.2 Pm/cm. Theoretical and experimental results are presented for some relevant parameters that control the diffraction efficiency of the concentrator. Emphasis is placed on the problems encountered when a multiple lens-system (stack) is generated in a single gelatin layer or in an integrated multi-layer hologram.
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